CA1260381A

CA1260381A - Supercritical fluid molecular spray film deposition and powder formation

Info

Publication number: CA1260381A
Application number: CA000461977A
Authority: CA
Inventors: Richard D. Smith
Original assignee: Battelle Memorial Institute Inc
Current assignee: Battelle Memorial Institute Inc
Priority date: 1983-09-01
Filing date: 1984-08-28
Publication date: 1989-09-26
Also published as: DE3467863D1; JPS61500210A; US4582731A; EP0157827A1; WO1985000993A1; JPH0419910B2; EP0157827B1; ATE31152T1

Abstract

SUPERCRITICAL FLUID MOLECULAR SPRAY FILM
DEPOSITION AND POWDER FORMATION
ABSTRACT OF THE DISCLOSURE
Solid films are deposited, or fine powders formed, by dissolving a solid material into a super-critical fluid solution at an elevated pressure and then rapidly expanding the solution through a short orifice into a region of relatively low pressure. This produces a molecular spray which is directed against a substrate to deposit a solid thin film thereon, or discharged into a collection chamber to collect a fine powder. Upon expansion and supersonic interaction with background gases in the low pressure region, any clusters of sol-vent are broken up and the solvent is vaporized and pumped away. Solute concentration in the solution is varied primarily by varying solution pressure to determine, together with flow rate, the rate of deposi-tion and to control in part whether a film or powder is produced and the granularity of each. Solvent cluster-ing and solute nucleation are controlled by manipulating the rate of expansion of the solution and the pressure of the lower pressure region. Solution and low pressure region temperatures are also controlled.

Description

~Z~381 SUPERCRITICAL FLUID MOLECULAR SPRAY FILM
DEPOSITION AND POWDER FO~ATION
BACKG~OUND OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates to deposition and powder formation methods and more particularly to thin film deposition and fine powder formation methods.
Thin films and methods for their formation are of crucial importance to the development of many new technologies. Thin films of less than about one micro-meter (um) thickness down to those approaching mono-molecular layers, cannot be made by conventional liquid spraying techniques. Liquid spray coatings are typical-ly more than an order of magnitude thicker than true thin films. Such techniques are also limited to deposi-tion of liquid-soluble substances and subject to prob-lems inherent in removal of the liquid solvent.
There are many existing technologies for thin films deposition, including physical and chemical vapor deposition, plasma pyrolysis and sputtering. Collec-tively, these techniques are usable to produce thinfilms of many materials for a wide variety of applica-tions, but it is still impossible to generate suitable thin films of many materials, particularly for thermally labile organic and polymeric materials. Some of these known techniques enable deposition of thin films having physical and chemical qualities, such as molecular homo-geneity, which are unattainable by liquid spray tech-niques. Existing thin film technologies are often also inadequate for many applications due to high power requirements, low deposition rates, limi-tations upon substrate temperature, or the complexity and expense of deposition equipment. Hence, such techniques cannot be used economically to produce thick films or coatings having the same qualities as thin films. Also, most known thin film deposition techniques are mutually in-compatible.

~i' :~2~38~

Accordingly, a need remains for a new surface deposition technique, which has the potential of allow-ing deposition of thin films not previously possible, with distinct advantages compared to existing thin film technologies.
Similar problems and a similar need exists in the formation of fine powders. Highly homegeneous and very fine powders, such as made by plasma processing, are very energy intensive and therefore expensive to make.
SUMMARY OF I'HE INVENTION
One object of this invention is to enable deposition of very high- as well as low-molecular weight solid thin films or formation of powders thereof.
A second object is to deposit films or form fine powders of thermally-labile compounds.
A third object of the invention is to deposit thin films having a highly homogeneous microstructure.
Another object is to reduce the cost and com-plexity of apparatus for depositing thin films or form-ing powders.
A further object is to enable rapid deposition of coatings having thin film qualities.
Another object is the formation of fine powders having a narrow size distribution, and to enable control of their physical and chemical properties as a function of their detailed structure.
An additional object is the formation of fine powders with structures appropriate for use as selective chemical catalysts.
Yet another object is to enable deposition without excessively heating or having to cool or heat the substrate to enable deposition.
An additional object is -to enable deposition of 35 non-equilibrium materials.
The invention is a new technique for depositing thin films and forming fine powders utilizing a super-~2~3 !3~

critical fluid injection molecular spray (FIMS~. Thetechnique involves the rapid expansion of a pressurized supercritical fluid (dense gas) solution containing the solid material or solute to be deposited into a low pressure region. This is done in such a manner that a "molecular spray" of individual molecules (atoms) or very small clusters of the solute are produced, which may then be deposited as a film on any given substrate or, by promoting molecular nucleation or clustering, as a fine powder. The range of potential application of this new surface deposition and powder formation tech-nology is very broad.
The technique appears applicable to any mate-rial which can be dissolved in a supercritical fluid.
In the context of this invention, the term "supercriti-cal" relates to dense gas solutions with enhanced solva-tion powers, and can include near supercritical fluids.
While the ultimate limits of application are unknown, it includes most polymers, organic compounds, and many in-organic materials (using, for example, supercriticalwater as the solvent). Polymers of more than one million molecular weight can be dissolved in supercriti-cal fluids. Thin films and powders can therefore be produced for a wide range of organic, polymeric, and thermally labile materials which are impossible to pro-duce with existing technologies. This technique also provides the basis for improved and considerably more economical methods for forming powders or depositing surface layers of a nearly unlimited range of materials on any substrate and at any desired thickness.
The FIMS film deposition and powder formation processes are useful for many potential applications and can provide significant advantages over prior tech-niques. For example, in the electro-optic materials area, improved methods of producing thin organic and polymer films are needed and are made possible by this invention. The process also appears to be useful for ~.26~3~l the development of resistive layers (such as polyimides) for advanced microchip development. These techniques can provide the basis for thin film deposition of mate-rials for use in molecular scale electronic devices where high quality films of near molecular thicknesses will be required for the ultimate step in miniaturiza-tion. This approach also provides a method for deposi-tion of thin films of conductive organic compounds as well as the formation of thin protective layers. A wide range of applications exist for deposition of improved coatings for UV and corrosion protection, and layers with various specialized properties. Many additional potential applications could be listed. Similarly, FIMS
powder formation techniques can be used for formation of more selective catalysts or new composite and low densi-ty materials with a wide range of applications.
It is believed that this process will have sub-stantial utility in space manufacturing applications, particularly using the high-vacuum, low-gravity condi-tions thereof. In space, this process would produce perfectly symmetric powders. ~pplications in space as well as on earth include deposition of surface coatings of a wide range of characteristics, and deposition of very thin adhesive layers for bonding and construction.
There are three fundamental aspects to the FIMS
film deposition and powder formation process. The first aspect pertains to supercritical fluid solubility.
~riefly, many solid materials of interest are soluble in supercritical fluid solutions that are substantially insoluble in liquids or gases. Forming a supercritical solution can be accomplished either of two ways: dis-solving a solute or appropriate precursor chemicals into a supercritical fluid or dissolving same in a liquid and pressuring and heating the solution to a supercritical 35 state. In accordance with the invention, the super-critical solution parameters--temperature, pressure, and solute concentration--are varied to control rate of ~Z~03~

deposition and molecular nucleation or clustering of the solute.
The second important aspect is the fluid injec-tion molecular spray or FIMS process itself. rrhe injec-tion process involves numerous parameters which affectsolvent cluster formation during expansion, and a subse-quent solvent cluster "break-up" phenomenon in a Mach disc which results from free jet or supersonic expansion of the solution. Such parameters include expansion flow rate, orifice dimensions, expansion region pressures and solvent-solute interactions at reduced pressures, the kinetics of gas phase nucleation processes, cluster size and lifetime, substrate conditions, and the energy con-tent and reactivity of the "nonvolatile" molecules which have been transferred to the gas phase by the FIMS
process. Several of these parameters are varied in accordance with the invention to control solvent clustering and to limit or promote nucleation of the solute molecules selectively to deposit films or to form powders, respectively, and to vary granularity and other characteristics of the films or powders.
The third aspect of the invention pertains to the conditions of the substrate during the thin film deposition process. Briefly, all of the techniques presently available to the deposition art can be used in conjunction with this process. In addition, a wide variety of heretofor unavailable physical film charac-teristics can be obtained by varying the solution and fluid injection parameters in combination with substrate conditions.
The potential major advantages of the FIMS thin film deposition technique compared to conventional tech-nologies such as sputtering and chemical vapor deposi-tion (CVD) include:
- Economic operation (compared to sputtering).
- A wide range of readily controlled deposi-tion rates.
- Operation from high vacuum to atmospheric 12~138~

pressures.
- Independence from substrate conditions (such as temperature) allowing improved control over film characteristics.
- Deposition of organic and polymeric mate-rials in thin films not possible by existing technologies.
- Possible adaptation to small portable deposition devices for exotic applications.
Similar advantages arise from the FIMS powder formation method, in particular the ability to generate ultra fine powders, highly uniform size distributions, and uniform or amorphous chemical and physical proper-ties.
The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will become more readily apparent from the following detailed description, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF T~E DRAWINGS
Fig. 1 is a graph of a typical pressure-density behavior for a compound in the critical region in terms of reduced parameters.
Fig. 2 is a graph of typical trends for solu-bilities of solids in supercritical fluids as a function of temperature and pressure.
Fig. 3 is a graph of the solubility of silicon dioxide (SiO2) in subcritical and supercritical water at various pressures.
Fig. 4 is a simplified schematic of apparatus for supercritical fluid injection molecular spray deposition of thin films on a substrate or formation of powders in accordance with the invention.
Figs. 5 and 5a are enlarged cross sectional views of two different forms of supercritical fluid injectors used in the apparatus of Fig. 4.
Fig. ~ is a schematic illustration of the fluid injection molecular spray process illustrating the interaction of the supercritical fluid spray with the ~6038~

low pressure region into which it is injected.
Fig. 7 is a photomicrograph showing four dif-ferent examples of supercritical fluid injection molecu-lar spray-deposited silica surfaces in accordance with the invention.
Fig. 8 is a low magnification photomicrograph of three examples of supercritical fluid injection mo-lecular spray-formed silica particles or powders in accordance with the invention.
Fig. 9 is a ten times magnification photomicro-graph of the subject matter of Fig. 8.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
The immediately following sections describe, in turn, the relevant aspects of supercritical fluid behav-ior, the FIMS process, and film deposition and powderformation using the process. These are followed by descriptions of apparatus used in the process and exam-ples of the process and the resultant products. Various background references are cited parenthetically in this description, are listed in the appended bibliography and are incorporated by reference herein to further explain to practitioners of the thin film deposition and powder formation arts certain details of the present invention with which they presently are not ordinarily familiar.
Solubilities in Supercritical Fluids The primary requirement for the Fluid Injection Molecular Spray (FIMS) technique is that the material to be deposited (or a suitable precursor) be soluble in a supercritical fluid. Subsequently in the process, the supercritical fluid or solvent is one which substantial-ly vaporizes into a gas upon expansion from the super-critical state, enabling removal from the vicinity of deposition.
Because of its importance to the FIMS powder and film deposition technique, and the present lack of solubility data for many substances of interest, a brief 38:~l discussion of relevant supercritical fluid phenomena is warranted.
At high pressures above the critical point the resulting fluid or "dense gas" will attain densities approaching those of a liquid (with increased inter-molecular interactions) and will assume some of the properties of a liquid. The supercritical fluid extrac-tion (1) and supercritical fluid chromatography (2) methods utilize the variable but readily controlled properties characteristic of a supercritical fluid.
These properties are dependent upon the fluid composi-tion, temperature, and pressureO
The compressibility of supercritical gases is great, just above the critical temperature where small changes in pressure result in large changes in the den-sity of the supercritical fluid (3)O Fig. 1 shows a typical pressure-density relationship in terms of reduced parameters (e.g., pressure, temperature or den-sity divided by the corresponding variable at the criti-cal point, which are given for a number of compounds inTable 1). Isotherms for various reduced temperatures show the variations in density which can be expected with changes in pressure. The "liquid-likel' behavior of a supercritical fluid at higher pressures results in greatly enhanced solubilizing capabilities compared to those of the "subcritical" gas, with higher diffusion coefficients and an extended useful temperature range compared to liquids. Compounds of high molecular weight can often be dissolved in the supercritical phase at relatively low temperatures; and the solubility of species up to 1,800,000 molecular weight has been demon-strated for polystyrene (4).
An interesting phenomenon associated with supercritical fluids is the occurrence of a "threshold pressure" for solubility of a high molecular weight solute (5). As the pressure is increased, the solu-bility of the solute will often increase by many orders of magnitude with only a small pressure increase (2).
Thus, the threshold pressure is the pressure (for a given temperature) at which the solubility of a compound increases greatly (i.e., becomes detectable). Examples of a few compounds which can be used as supercritical solvents are given in Table 1.

EXAMPLES OF SUPERCRITICAL SOLVENTS
Critical 10 Boiling Critical Critical Density Point Temperature Pressure 3 Compound( c? ( c) (atm) (g/cm ) C2 - 78.5a 31.3 72.9 0.448 NH3 - 33.35 132.4 112.5 0.235 15 H2O 100.00 374.15 218.3 0.315 N2O - 88.56 36.5 71.7 0.45 Methane -164.00 - 82.1 45.8 0.2 Ethane - 88.63 32.28 48.1 0.203 Ethylene -103.7 9.21 49.7 0.218 20 Propane - 42.1 96.67 41.9 0.217 Pentane 36.1 196.6 33.3 0.232 Benzene 80.1 288.9 48.3 0.302 Methanol 64.7 240.5 78.9 0.272 Ethanol 78.5 243.0 63.0 0.276 25 Isopropanol82.5 235.3 47.0 0.273 Isobutanol108.0 275.0 42.4 0.272 Chlorotrifluoro-methane 31.2 28.0 38.7 0.579 Monofluoromethane 78.4 44.6 58.0 0.3 30 Toluene 110.6 320.0 40.6 0.292 Pyridine 115.5 347.0 55.6 0.312 Cyclohexane80.74 280.0 40.2 0.273 m-Cresol 202.2 433.0 45.0 0.346 Decalin 195.65 391.0 25.8 0.254 35 Cyclohexanol155.65356.0 38.0 0.273 o-Xylene 144.4 357.0 35.0 0.284 Tetralin 207.57 446.0 34.7 0.309 Aniline 184.13 426.0 52.4 0.34 Near supercritical liquids demonstrate solu-bility characteristics and other pertinent properties similar to those of supercritical ~luids. The solute may be a liquid at the supercritical temperatures, even though it is a solid at lower temperatures. In addi-tion, it has been demonstrated that fluid "modifiers"
can often alter supercritical fluid properties signifi-cantly, even in relatively low concentrations, greatly increasing solubility for some compounds. These varia-tions are considered to be within the concept of asupercritical fluid as used in the context of this invention.
The fluid phase solubility of higher molecular weight and more polar materials is a necessary pre-requisite for many potentially important E'IMS applica-tions. Unfortunately, the present state of theoretical prediction of fluid phase solubilities is inadequate to serve as a reliable guide to fluid selection. Various approaches to solubility prediction have been suggested or employed. Some of these approaches have been reviewed by Irani and Funk (6). The rigorous theoreti-cal approach is to use the virial equation of-state and calculate the necessary virial coefficients using statistical mechanics. However, the virial equa-tion-of-state does not converge as the critical density is approached (6). Since its application is generally limited to densities of less than half the critical den-sity, it is inadequate for FIMS conditionsO Consequent-ly, at higher solvent densities, an empirical or semi-empirical equation-of-state must be employed.
While both equations-of-state and lattice gas models have been applied to fit supercritical fluid solubility data (7-14), this approach at present is of limited value for polar components and larger organic compounds (15,16).

An alternative approach which uses the more empirically derived solubility parameters can be modi-fied to be an appropriate guide for fluid selection (17,18). This approach has the advantage of simplicity, but necessarily involves approximations due to an inade-quate treatment of density-dependent entropy effects, pressure-volume effects, and other approximations in-herent in solution theory, as well as failures such as those noted for the theoretical methods. ~ore recent approaches, designed to take into consideration the range of attractive forces, have utilized multidimen-sional solubility parameters which are evaluated by more empirical methods (19). In contrast to liquids, the solubility parameter of a supercritical fluid is not a constant value, but is approximately proportional to the gas density. In general, two fluid components are con-sidered likely to be mutually soluble if the component solubility parameters agree to within + 1 (cal/cm3).
However, actual supercritical fluid solubilities are usually less than predicted (18). The solubility para-meter may be divided into two terms related to "chemical effects" and intermolecular forces (17,18). This approach predicts a minimum density below which the solute is not soluble in the fluid phase (the "threshold pressure"). It also suggests that the solubility para-meter will have a maximum value as density is increased if sufficiently high solubility parameters can be obtained. This phenomenon has been observed for several compounds in very high pressure studies (18).
The typical range of variation of the solu-bility of a solid solute in a supercritical fluid sol-vent as a function of temperature and pressure is illustrated in a simplified manner in Fig. 2. l'he solute typically exhibits a threshold fluid pressure 35 above which solubility increases significantly. The region of maximum increase in solubility has been pre-dicted to be near the critical pressure where the change in density is greatest with pressure (see Fig. 1)(20).
In contrast, where volatility of the solute is low and at lower fluid pressures, increasing the temperature will typically decrease solubility as fluid density decreases. However, as with many liquids, "solubility"
may again increase at sufficiently high temperatures, where the solute vapor pressure may also become signifi-cant. Thus, while the highest supercritical fluid den-sities at a given pressure are obtained near the criti-cal temperature, higher solubilities may be obtained atslightly lower fluid densities but higher temperatures.
While there is little data concerning the solu-bility of many materials relevant to FIMS film deposi-tion, some systems have been extensively investigated due to their importance in other fields of technology.
As an example, Figure 3 gives solubility data for sili-con dioxide (SiO2) in subcritical and supercritical water (21~, illustrating the variation in solubility with pressure and temperature. The variation in solu-bility with pressure provides a method for both removalor reduction in impurities, as well as simple control of FIMS deposition rate. Other possible fluid systems include those with chemically-reducing properties, or metals, such as mercury, which are appropriate as sol-vents for metals and other solutes which have extremelylow vapor pressures. Therefore, an important aspect of the invention is the utilization of the increased super-critical fluid solubilities of solid materials for FIMS
film deposition and powder formation.
Fluid Injection Molecular Spray The fundamental basis of the FIMS surface deposition and powder formation process involves a fluid expansion technique in which the net effect is to trans-fer a solid material dissolved in a supercritical fluid to the gas phase at low (i.e. atmospheric or sub-atmos-pheric) pressures, under conditions where it typically has a negligible vapor pressure. I'his process utilizes ~L2~3~

a fluid injection technique which calls for rapidly expanding the supercritical solution through a short orifice into a relatively lower pressure region, i.e.
one of approximately atmospheric or sub-atmospheric pressures. This technique is akin to an injection process, the concept of which I recently developed, for - direct analysis of supercritical fluids by mass spec-trometry (22-26). However, it differs from the spec-trometry application in that the latter is limited to expansion into regions of well-defined pressure of about 1 torr., very low flow rates--less than about 100 micro-liters/min.--and very dilute solute concentrations, and injection into an ion plasma, rather than an energetic-ally passive low-pressure region. An understanding of the physical and chemical phenomena during the FIMS
process is vital to the deposition of films and forma-tion of films with desirable properties.
The design of the FIMS orifice (or pressure restrictor) is a critical factor in overall perform-ance. The FIMS apparatus should be simple, easily main-tained and capable of prolonged operation without fail-ure (e.g., plugging of the restrictor). Additionally, the FIMS process for thin film applications must be designed to provide for control of solute clustering or nucleation, minimization of solvent clusters, and to eliminate or reduce the condensation or decomposition of nonvolatile or thermally labile compounds. Similarly, solute clustering, nucleation and coagulation are utilized to control the formation of fine powders using the FIMS process. The ideal restrictor or orifice allows the entire pressure drop to occur in a single rapid step so as to avoid the precipitation of nonvola-tile material at the orifice. Proper design of the FIMS
injector, discussed hereinafter, allows a rapid expan-sion of the supercritical solution, avoiding theliquid-to-gas phase transition.

33~3~

The unique characteristics of the FIMS process, as contrasted to deposition by liquid spray or nebuliza-tion, center about the direct fluid injection process.
In liquid nebulization the bulk of the spray is initial-ly present as droplets of about micron size or larger.Droplets of this size present the problem of providing sufficient heat to evaporate the solvent. This is im-practical in nearly all cases. Thus spray and nebuliza-tion methods are not true thin film techniques since relatively large particles or agglomerations of mole-cules actually impact the surface. These same charac-teristics also enable the production of much finer pow-ders using FIMS than are practical by techniques not involving gas phase particle growth.
Additional advantages result from the much higher volatility of many supercritical fluids compared to liquid spray or nebulization techniques. This allows the solvent to be readily pumped away or removed since there is little tendency to accumulate on the surface.
Typical conditions in the liquid spray or nebulization techniques result in extensive cluster formation and persistence of a jet of frozen droplets into the low pressure discharge region. A characteristic of the FIMS
process is that, during fluid injection, there is no visible jet formation once the critical temperature has been exceeded.
Thermodynamic considerations for an isentropic expansion, such as the FIMS process, lead one to expect less than a few percent of the solvent to be initially present as clusters. Proper control of conditions dur-ing the FIMS process results in an extremely short life-time for these small clusters. Solvent clusters are rapidly reduced in size due to both evaporation and by the heating process due to the Mach disk shock front, 35 described below. Clusters or small particles of the "solute" can be avoided by having sufficiently dilute supercritical solutions, operating in a temperature range above the critical temperature for the solvent, and expanding under conditions which minimize the extent oE nucleation or agglomeration. On the other hand, small solute particle or powder formation can be maxi-mized by having high solute concentrations and injectionflow rates leading to both clusters with large numbers of solute molecules and increased gas phase nucleation and coagulation processes. The latter conditions can produce a fine powder, having a relatively narrow size distribution, with many applications in materials tech-nologies.
An improved understanding of the FIMS process may be gained by consideration of solvent cluster forma-tion phenomena during isentropic expansion of a high pressure jet 100 through a nozzle 102, as illustrated schematically in Figure 6. The expansion through the FIMS orifice 102 is related to the fluid pressure (Pf), the pressure in the expansion region (Pv), and other parameters involving the nature of the gas, tem-perature, and the design of orifice 102. When an expan-sion occurs in a low pressure region or chamber 104 with a finite background pressure (Pv), the expanding gas in jet 100 will interact with the background gas produc-ing a shock wave system. This includes barrel and reflected shock waves 110 as well as a shock wave 112 (the Mach disk) perpendicular to the jet axis 114. lhe Mach disk is created by the interaction of the super-sonic jet llO and the background gases of region 104.
It is characterized by partial destruction of the directed jet and a transfer of collisional energy resulting in a redistribution of the directed kinetic energy of the jet among the various translational, vibrational and rotational modes. ~hus, the Mach disk serves to heat and break up the solvent clusters formed 35 during the expansion process. Experimentally, it has been o~served that the extent of solvent cluster forma-tion drops rapidly as pressure in the expansion region ~038~

is increased. This pressure change moves the Mach disk closer to the nozzle, curtailing clustering vf the sol-vent.
The distance from the orifice to the Mach disk may be estimated from experimental work (27,28) as 0.67 D(Pf/PV)l/2, where D is the orifice diameter.
Thus, for typical conditions where Pf = 400 atm, Pv = 1 torr and D = 1 um the distance to the ~ach disk is 0.4 mm. Accordingly, it is necessary to have sufficient background gas in the low pressure region to limit clustering of the solvent so that the solvent is not included in the film or powder. This constraint is met in any practical enc~osed vacuum system.
The solvent clusters formed during the expan-sion of a dense gas result from adiabatic cooling infirst stages of the expansion process. The extent of cluster formation is related to the fluid pressure, tem-perature, and the orifice dimensions. Theoretical methods for prediction of the precise extent of cluster formation are still inadequate. However, an empirical method of "corresponding ]ets" has been developed (27) which uses scaled parameters, and has been successfully employed. Randall and Wahrhaftig (28) have applied this method to the expansion of supercritical CO2 and obtained the following empirical equation:
N = 6 X 1011 x Plf 44 x D0.86 x T~s 4 for Pf in torr, T in K, D in mm and where N is the average number of molecules in a cluster and T is the supercritical fluid temperature. For the typical con-ditions noted above this leads to an average clustersize of approximately 1.6 x 103 molecules at 100C or a droplet diameter of about 30 A. For a solute present in a 1.0 mole percent supercritical fluid solution, this corresponds to a solute cluster size of 16 molecules after loss or evaporation of the solvent (gas) mole-cules, assuming all solute molecules remain associated.
For the laser drilled FIMS orifice, the dimensions are ~038~

such that we expect somewhat of a delay in condensation resulting in a faster expansion and less clustering than calculated. More conventional nozzles or longer orifice designs would enhance solvent cluster formation.
Thus, the average clusters formed in the FIMS
expansion process are more than 10~ to 109 less mas-sive than the droplets formed in li~uid spray and nebulization methods. The small clusters formed in the FIMS process are expected to be rapidly broken up in or after the Mach disk due to the energy transfer process described above. The overall result of the FI~S process is to produce a gas spray or a spray of extremely small clusters incorporating the nonvolatile solute mole-culesO This conclusion is supported by our mass spec-trometric observations which show no evidence of cluster formation in any of the supercritical systems studied to date t23,24).
Thus, the foregoing details of the FIMS process are relevant to the injector design, performance, and lifetime, as well as to the characteristics of the molecular spray and the extent of clustering or coagula-tion. The initial solvent clustering phenomena and any subsequent gas phase solute nucleation processes, are also directly relevant to film and powder characteris-tics as described hereinafter.Film Deposition and Powder Formation The FIMS process is the basis of this new thin film deposition and powder formation technique. The FIMS process allows the transfer of nominally nonvola-tile species to the gas phase, from which deposition isexpected to occur with high efficiency upon available sur~aces.
However, while the FIMS process determines the rate of transfer to the gas phase, both the gas phase and substrate conditions have an effect upon the result-ing film. The powder formation process also depends on both the FIMS process and the kinetics of the various ~ ~'6(~

- gas phase processes which promote particle growth. The major gas phase processes include possible association with solvent molecules and possible nucleation of the film species (if the supercritical fluid concentration is sufficiently large). Important variable substrate parameters include distance from the FIMS injector, sur-face characteristics of the substrate, and temperature.
Deposition efficiency also depends in varying degrees upon surface characteristics, pressure, translational energy associated with the molecular spray, and the nature of the particular species being deposited.
Apparatus The viability of the FIMS concept for film deposition and powder formation has been demonstrated by the use of the apparatus shown in Figs. 4, 5, and 5a.
The supercritical fluid apparatus 210 utilizes a Varian 8500 high-pressure syringe pump 212 (8000 psi maximum pressure) and a constant-temperature oven 214 and trans-fer line 216. An expansion chamber 218 is equipped with a pressure monitor in the form of a thermocouple gauge 220 and is pumped using a 10 cfm mechanical pump 222. A
liquid nitrogen trap (not shown) is used to prevent most pump oil from back streaming (however, the films pro-duced did show impurities in several instances due to the presence of a fluorocarbon contaminant and trace impurities due to the pump oil and high quality films free of such impurities should utilize either improved pumping devices or a significant flow of "clean" gas to prevent back diffusion of pump oils). l'he initial con-figuration also required manual removal of a flange forsample substrate 224 placement prior to flange closure and chamber evacuation. '~he procedure is reversed for sample removal. Again an improved system would allow for masking of the substrate until the start of the 35 desired exposure period, and would include interlocks for sample introduction ancl removal. In addition, means (not shown) for substrate heating and sample movement 3~3~

(e.g., rotation) are also desirable for control of deposition conditions and to improve deposition rates (and film thicknesses) over large substrate areas. In addition, for certain powder or film products, it is appropriate to operate under ambient atmospheric condi-tions, thus greatly reducing the complexity of the necessary equipment. For ambient pressure deposition, one would simply need to maintain gas flow to remove the gas (solvent).
Operation under the high vacuum conditions in space would allow desirable conditions for both the pow-der and thin films processes since the gas phase solvent is rapidly removed. In addition, the gravity-free con-ditions available in space would allow the formation of fine particles having highly symmetric physical proper-ties. In addition, any FIMS process system would bene-fit from a number of FIMS injectors operating in tandem to produce more uniform production of powders or films or to inject different materials to produce powder and films of variable chemical composition.
Several FIMS probes have been designed and tested in this process. One design, illustrated in Figure 5, consists of a heated probe 226 (maintained at the same temperature as the oven and transfer line) and a pressure restrictor consisting of a laser drilled orifice in a 50 to 250 um thick stainless steel disc 228. A small tin gasket is used to make a tight seal between the probe tip and the pressure restrictor, resulting in a dead volume estimated to be on the order of 0.01 uL. Good results have been obtained with laser drilled orifices in u~ 250 um (.25 mm) thick stainless steel. The orifice is typically in the 1-4 um diameter size range although this range is primarily determined by the desired flow rate. Larger orifices may be used and, for similar solute concentrations, will increase the extent of nucleation during the FIMS expansion. The actual orifice dimensions are variable due to the laser drilling process. A second design (Fig. 5a) of probe 226a is similar to that of Fig. 5, but terminates in a capillary restriction obtained, for example, by care-fully crimping the terminal 0.1-0.5 mm of platinum-irid-ium tubing 230. This design provides the desired flowrate as well as an effectively zero dead volume, but more sporadic success than the laser-drilled orifice.
Another restrictor (not shown) is made by soldering a short length (c~ 1 cm) of tubing having a very small inside diameter (c~ 5 um for a small system but poten-tially much larger for large scale film deposition or high powder formation rates) inside of tubing with a much larger inside diameter so that it acts as an ori-fice or nozzle.
The important point is to enable the injection process to be sufficiently fast so that material has insufficient time to precipitate and plug the orifice.
Thus a 10 cm length of 10 um I.D. tubing plugs vary rapidly--the pressure drops along the capillary and at some point the solute precipitates and collects, ulti-mately plugging the tube. It is important to minimize any precipitation by making the pressure drop as rapid as possible. A simple calculation shows that the fluid moves through a short 100 um restriction in C 10 6 seconds.
Very concentrated (saturated) solutions can also be handled with reduced probability of plugging by adjusting the conditions in the probe so that the solvating power of the fluid is increased just before injection. This can be done in many cases by simply operating at a slightly lower or higher temperature, where the solubility is larger, and depending upon pres-sure as indicated in Fig. 2.
Examples The two systems chosen for demonstration involved deposition of polystyrene films on platinum and fused silica, and deposition of silica on platinum and ~ ~n.~

glass. The supercritical solution for polystyrene involved a 0.1% solution in a pentane -2~ cyclohexanol solution. Supercritical water containing ~ 0.02% SiO2 was used for the silica deposition. In both cases the substrate was at ambient temperatures and the deposition pressure was typically approximately 1 torr, although some experiments described hereinafter were conducted under atmospheric pressure. The films produced ranged from having a nearly featureless and apparently amor-phous s~ructure to those with a distinct crystallinestructure. It should be noted that, as in chemical vapor deposition, control over film characteris-tics--amorphous, polycrystalline and even epitaxial in some instances--is obtained by control of the substrate surface and temperature). Relatively even deposition was obtained over the small surfaces (~ 4 cm2).
Fourier transform infrared analysis of the polystyrene films on fused silica (not shown) did not show detectable amounts of the cyclohexanol solvent.
However, the silica films did show evidence of fluoro-carbon impurities possibly due to the sample cell.
Analysis of the films indicated a thickness of approxi-mately 0.5 um for polystyrene and 2800 A for silica for five minute deposition periods. Much greater or smaller formation rates can be obtained by adjustment of para-meters noted previously and the use of multiple FIMS
in~ectors.
These limited studies also indicated that more concentrated solutions with long distances to the deposition surface could result in substantial nuclea-tion and coagulation for some materials. For example, for silica, it was possible to generate an extremely fine powder having a complex structure and an average particle size ~ 0.1 um. Using a saturated polystyrene solution produced particles (not shown) as large as 0.3 um with an extremely narrow size distribution.

~6~1381 The range of surface structures produced for the silica deposition studies show an even wider range of surface characteristics. Figure 7 gives scanning electron photomicrographs obtained for silica film deposition on glass surfaces under the range of condi-tions listed in Table 2 below.

Solute: Silica Solvent: Water Expansion region at ambient 10 temperature for 5-10 minutes exposed.
Supercritical E'luid FIMS Conditions Silica Conc.
Est.
15 from Solu-bility Pressure Film Data Temp (atm)Flow Rate Pressure A 0.01% 450C 400 atm40 uL/min 0.5 torr B 0.02% 400C 450 atm 40-70 uL/min 0.5 torr C 0.04% 490C 400 atm150 uL/min 0.6 torr D* 0.04% 450C 400 atm250 uL/min 0.9 torr Powder A 0.02~ 520C 450 atm100 uL~min 1 atm (760 torr) B* 0.05% 450C 400 atm90 uL/min 0.5 torr C 0.04% 450C 400 atm300 uL/min 1.2 torr *Contained flurocarbon contaminant The photomicrographs show that the deposited films range from relatively smooth and uniform (Figs. 7A and 7B) to complex and having a large surface area (Figs. 7C and 7D). Similarly, Figs. 8 and 9 show powders produ~ed under conditions where nucleation and coagulation are increased. It should be noted that different FIMS
restrictors were utilized for these examples. The resulting products are not expected to be precisely ~6~3~3~

reproducible but are representative of the range of films or powders which can be produced using the EIMS
process. In addition, different solutes would be expected to change the physical properties of the resulting films and powders.
In general, high injection or flow rates pro-duce a more granular film surface or larger powder sizes, as do higher solute concentrations, and higher expansion chamber pressures. To a certain extent, orifice length and shape will also affect granularity.
The deposition rate also increases as the product of solute concentration and the flow rate increase. Solute concentration is a more important determinant of granu-larity than flow rate. Therefore, to alter granularity it is preferable to vary the solute concentration and to alter deposition rate it is preferable to vary flow rate.
Having illustrated and described the principles of my invention in two embodiments, with a number of examples illustrating variations thereof, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the invention can be modified in arrangement and detail without departing from such principles. Accordingly, I claim all modifications coming within the spirit and scope of the following claims.

38~

REFERENCES
1. Schneider, G. M., E. Stahl and G. Wilke, editors. 1980. "Extraction with Supercritical Gases," Verlag Chemie, Deerfield Beach, Floriaa.

2. Gouw, T. H., and R. E. Jentoft, Adv. Chroma-togr., 13, 1-40 (1975).

3. Wassen, u. Van I. Swaid and G. M. Schneider, Aqenw. Chem. Int. Ed. Enq., 19, 575-587 (1980).

4. Giddings, J. C., M. N. Myers, L. McLaren and R.
A. Keller, Science, 162, 67-73, (1968).

5. Irani, C. A., and E. W. Funk, in: Recent Developments in Separation Science, N. N. Li (Ed.), CRC Press, Cleveland, p. 171 (1977).

6. Schindler, H. D., J. M. Chen, and J. D. Potts, "Integrated Two Stage Liquefaction Topical Technical Progress Report Completion of Indiana V Program," NTIS 14804-Q7 (1982).

7. Prausnitz, J. M., Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid Phase Equilibrium, Prentice-Hall, Engle-wood Cliffs (1969).

8. Oellrich, L., U. Plocker, J. M. Prausnitz and H. Knapp, Chem. Ing. Tech., 49, 955 (1977).

9. Prausnitz, J. M., Inst. Chem. Eng. Trans., 59, 3 (1981).

10. Peter, S., Ber Bunsenges. Phys. Chem., 81, 950 (1977).

11. Johnson, K. P., and C. A. Eckert, Amer. Inst.
Chem. Eng., 27, 773 (1981).

12. Franck, E. U., Berichte Bunsen-Gesellschaft, 75, 341 (1972).

13. Hamann, S. D. and M. Liuron, Trans. Far Soc., 65, 2186 (1968).

14. Kleintjens, L. A., and R. Koringsveld, J. Elec-trochem. Soc., 127, 2352 (1980).

15. Kleintjens, L. A., and R. Koringsveld, Sep.
Sci. Tech., 17, 215 (1982).

16. Vezzetti, D. J., J. Chem. Phys., 77, 1512 (1982).

~2~;~3~3~

17. Giddings, J. C., M. N. Myers and J. W. King., J. Chromato~r. Sci., 7, 276-283 (1969).

18. Bowman, L. M., Ph.d. Thesis, University of Utah (1976).

19. Barton, A.F.M., Chem. Rev., 731 (1975).

20. Hoy, K. L., J. Paint l'echnol., 42, 76 (1970).

21. Konstam, A. H. and Feairheller, A.I. Ch. E.
Journal, 16, 837 (1970).

22. P. Hubert and O. V. Vitzthum, "Fluid Extraction of ~ops, Spices and Tobacco with Supercritical Gases in Extraction with Supercritical Gases"
edited by G. M. Schneider and E. Stahl and G.
Wilke, Verlag Chemi Weinheim, 1980, pages 26-43.

23. "Assessment of Critical Fluid Extractions in the Process Industries," Critical Systems Incorporated, A. D. Little, Cambridge, Mass.
Ecut Biocatholysis, U.S. Department of Energy, JPO-9950-793, April, 1982.

24. Smith, R. D., W. D. Felix, J. C. Fjeldsted and M. L. Lee, Anal. Chem., 54, 1883 (1982).

25. Smith, R. D., J. C. Fjeldsted, and M. L. Lee, J. Chromato~., 247, 231-243 (1982).

26. Smith, R. D. and H. R. Udseth, Biomed. Mass Spectrom, in press, (1983).

27. Smith, R. D. and H. R. Udseth, Fuel, 62, 466-468 (1983).

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Instrum., 52, 1283-1295 (1981).

Claims

THE EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION IN WHICH AN EXCLUSIVE
PROPERTY OR PRIVILEGE IS CLAIMED ARE DEFINED AS FOLLOWS:

1. A method for depositing a film of solid material, on a surface, comprising:
forming a supercritical solution including a supercritical fluid solvent and a dissolved solute of a solid material;
rapidly expanding the supercritical solution through an orifice of a predetermined length and diame-ter to produce a molecular spray of the material and solvent; and directing the molecular spray against a surface to deposit a film of the solid material thereon.

2. A method according to claim 1, wherein the supercritical solution is subjected to an elevated pres-sure within a predetermined range, including varying the pressure to control solute solubility and thereby the rate of film deposition.

3. A method according to claim 1, in which the surface upon which the film is to be deposited is located within an expansion region of lower pressure, including varying the expansion region pressure to con-trol nucleation of solute molecules in the molecular spray.

4. A method according to claim 3, including decreasing the expansion region pressure to decrease granularity of the film deposited on the surface.

5. A method according to claim 1, including controlling the rate of expansion of the supercritical solution through the orifice to limit nucleation of solute molecules in the spray.

6. A method according to claim 5, in which controlling the rate of expansion includes varying at least one of the orifice dimensions and the supercriti-cal fluid pressure.

7. A method according to claim 1, including varying the flow rate of the supercritical fluid solu-tion through the orifice to vary the rate of deposition.

8. A method according to claim 1, including varying the solute concentration in order to vary the granularity of the film deposited on the surface.

9. A method according to claim 8, in which the solute concentration is reduced so as to deposit a fine film of the solute material on the surface.

10. A method for forming a fine powder of a solid material, comprising:
forming a supercritical solution including a supercritical fluid solvent and a dissolved solute of a solid material;
rapidly expanding the supercritical solution through an orifice of a predetermined length and diameter to produce a particulate spray of the material and vaporized solvent; and discharging the spray into a low pressure region to form a powder of the solid material therein.

11. A method according to claim 10, wherein the supercritical solution is subjected to an elevated pressure within a predetermined range, including varying the pressure to control the rate of production of the powder.

12. A method according to claim 10, wherein the supercritical solution has a predetermined concen-tration of the solute, and an elevated pressure and a temperature within a predetermined range, including varying at least said concentration to promote nuclea-tion of molecules of the solute in the spray.

13. A method according to claim 12, in which a more supercritical fluid solute concentration is increased to increase the particle size of the powder.

14. A method according to claim 10, including controlling the rate of expansion of the supercritical solution through the orifice to promote nucleation of molecules of the solid material.

15. A method according to claim 13, wherein controlling the rate of expansion includes varying at least one of said orifice dimensions and the supercriti-cal fluid pressure.

16. A method according to claim 10, including varying the pressure within the low pressure region in order to vary a microstructural property of the powder.

17. A method for forming a solid material into one of a thin film and a powder, comprising:
forming a supercritical solution containing a supercritical fluid solvent and a dissolved solute of the solid material in a predetermined concentration and at an elevated pressure;
discharging the supercritical solution through a short orifice into a region of lower pressure so as to rapidly expand the solution to produce a molecular spray of the solid material and solvent; and varying at least one of the elevated pressure, the solute concentration, the solution temperature, and the pressure of the low pressure region so as to control one of the rate of deposition of solute and the extent of nucleation of molecules of the solute in the low pressure region.

18. A method according to claim 17, including maintaining the low pressure region at a predetermined pressure and discharging the solution as a free jet so as to supersonically react with gases in the low pres-sure chamber to break up solvent clusters; maintaining the low pressure region at a predetermined temperature to vaporize the solvent; and pumping gases from the low pressure region to control the pressure thereof and to remove a portion of the solvent gases therefrom.

19. A method according to claim 17, including varying a dimension of the orifice in order to vary the expansion flow rate of the supercritical fluid there-through.

20. Apparatus for depositing films and pro-ducing ultra-fine powders, comprising:
means for pressurizing a solvent fluid to a pressure at least as high as approximately the critical pressure of the fluid;
heating and dissolving means for heating said fluid to a temperature at least substantially as high as its critical temperature while at said pressure and dissolving a normally solid solute in said fluid to produce a supercritical solution of the solute and fluid;
means defining a region containing an energet-ically passive gas at a reduced pressure much less than the fluid pressure;
means defining an orifice in communication with said heating and dissolving means, for discharging the solution under said fluid pressure into the region of reduced pressure, passive gas as a free jet molecular spray; and collecting means positioned in said region for collecting solid solute from the spray as a film or powder.

21. An apparatus according to claim 20 in which a small-bore conduit connects said heating and dissolving means to said orifice.

22. Apparatus according to claim 21 further including means for controlling the temperature of said conduit.

23. Apparatus according to claim 20 including means for continuously removing gases including a vapour of said fluid from said region.

24. An apparatus according to claim 23 in which said means for continuously removing gases and vapor from said chamber is operable to maintain the pressure therein below the vapor pressure of said fluid as the solution discharges from said orifice.

25. Apparatus according to claim 20 in which the orifice is sized to expand the supercritical solu-tion, upon discharge into the region of reduced pressure, in a single rapid pressure drop so as to transfer the solution to a gas phase substantially without passing through a liquid-to-gas transition.

26. An apparatus according to claim 25 in which said orifice has a diameter of not more than a few micrometers.

27. Apparatus according to claim 25 in which the means defining the passive region is an enclosed chamber for containing said passive gas at a pressure greater than the vapor pressure of the solute.

28. Apparatus according to claim 25 in which said orifice has a length of about 0.25 mm.

29. Apparatus according to claim 20 in which the collecting means is positioned in front of the orifice to receive the spray directly therefrom along a line of sight and spaced from the orifice a distance such that a Mach disk shock front is formed in said region between the orifice and the collecting means, by inter-action of the free jet spray and the background gases in the region.