CA1336621C - Measurement of thermal conductivity and specific heat - Google Patents
Measurement of thermal conductivity and specific heatInfo
- Publication number
- CA1336621C CA1336621C CA000603302A CA603302A CA1336621C CA 1336621 C CA1336621 C CA 1336621C CA 000603302 A CA000603302 A CA 000603302A CA 603302 A CA603302 A CA 603302A CA 1336621 C CA1336621 C CA 1336621C
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- sensor
- temperature
- fluid
- heater
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- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- G01N25/00—Investigating or analyzing materials by the use of thermal means
- G01N25/005—Investigating or analyzing materials by the use of thermal means by investigating specific heat
-
- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- G01N25/00—Investigating or analyzing materials by the use of thermal means
- G01N25/18—Investigating or analyzing materials by the use of thermal means by investigating thermal conductivity
Abstract
A method and apparatus for determining both the thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest are disclosed. An embodiment uses proximately positioned resistive heater and thermal sensor coupled by the fluid of interest. A pulse of electrical energy is applied to the heater of a level and duration such that both a transient change and a substantially steady-state temperature occur in the sensor. The k of the fluid of interest is determined based upon a known relation between the sensor output and k at steady-state sensor temperature; and cp of the fluid of interest is determined based on a known relation among k, the rate of change of the sensor output during a transient temperature change in the sensor and cp.
Description
~IEASUREMENT OF THER~AL CONDUCTIVITY
AND SPECIFIC HEAT
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Fleld of the Inventlon The present inventlon relates to the rneasurernent of certaln physlcal propertles of flulds and, more partlcularly, to the determlnatlon of both the speclflc heat and thermal conductlvlty of gases. In a preferred embodlment a trapped gas sarnple transrnlts steady state and translent responses to lnput energy of llmlted duratlon whlch can be measured electrlcally as by extractlng the lnfluence of the lnput energy ln the form of measurable change ln temperature of an approprlate sensor ln contact wlth the gas of lnterest.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
Flgures 1, 2, and 3 are dlfferent vlews of a prlor art embodlrnent of a rnlcrobrldge flow sensor.
Flgures 4 and 5 are typlcal clrcults for use wlth the sensors of Flgures 1-3.
Flgure 6 ls a schematlc representatlon of sensor tlrne/ternperature response curves accordlng to a heater pulse.
Flgures 7a, 7b, and 7c, represent several heater/sensor conflguratlons of mlcrobrldge systems ln accordance wlth the lnventlon.
Flgure 8 ls a scannlng-electron-mlcroscope (SEM) photo of the mlcrostructure of a typlcal mlcrobrldge sensor.
Flgure 9 ls a partlal schernatlc and block dlagram of a clrcult for use wlth a sensor as deplcted ln Flgure 7(b) ln 6gl59-1076 accordance wlth the lnventlon.
Flgure 9a is a rnore detalled circult schernatlc wlth reference to Flgure 7c.
Flgure 10 ls a schematlc block dlagrarn of the system of t~le lnventlon lncludlng callbratlon and use functlons.
Flgure ll ls a scope trace representlng the temperature slgnal rlse versus tlme, for the conflguratlon of Flgure 7(c) ln response to a heater pulse for dry alr at atrnospherlc pressure.
Flgure 12 ls a graphlcal representatlon of the temperature slgnal rlse versus tlme, for the conflguratlon of Flgure 7(c) ln response to the heater pulse for varlous gases at atmospherlc pressure as lndlcated.
Flgure 13 ls a graphlcal representatlon of thermal conductlvlty determlnatlon based on the brldge output of Flgure 9(a).
Flgure 14 ls a theoretlcal graphlcal representatlon of sensor heat-up tlme versus pressure for several gases uslng the sensor conflguratlon of Flgure 7b.
Flgure 15 ls slmllar to Flgure 14 based on data taken by a sensor of the type deplcted ln Flgure 7(b) calculated ln accordance wlth the lnventlon.
Figure 16 ls a graphlcal representatlon of sensor heat-up tlme versus pressure for several gases uslng the sensor conflguratlon of Flgure 7c.
Flgure 17 ls a graphlcal representatlon of sensor coollng tlme versus pressure for several gases uslng the sensor conflguratlon of Flgure 7c.
~ ,n - t33662169159-1076 Prlor Art In the prlor art the tradltlonal approach to determlnlng speclflc heat, cp, has been vla calorlmetry uslng reverslble step lncreases of energy fed to a therrnally lsolated or adlabatlc system. Such devlces are bulky, slow and cumbersome. Llttle progress has been made toward the automatlon of a rapld rnethod to make thls determlnatlon.
Wlth respect to rneasurlng thermal conductlvlty ln flulds varlous types of detectors have been used. Thls lncludes reslstance brldge type sensors. One such devlce ls descrlbed ln U.S. Patent 4,735,082 ln whlch thermal conductlvlty ls detected uslng a Wheatstone brldge technlque ln whlch a fllament ln one dlagonal of the brldge ls placed or posltloned ln a cavlty through whlch the sarnple gas of lnterest ls passed. The fllament ls used to lntroduce a serles of amounts of thermal energy lnto the fluld of lnterest at alternatlng levels by varylng the lnput voltage whlch, are, ln turn, detected at the other dlagonal as voltage dlfference slgnals. Integratlon of the changes of the value of the successlve stream of slgnals ylelds a slgnal lndlcatlve of the heat dlsslpatlon through the fluld, and thus, the thermal conductlvlty of the fluld.
Further to the rneasurernent of therrnally lnduced changes ln electrlcal reslstance, as wlll be dlscussed ln greater detall below, especlally wlth reference to prlor art Flgures 1-5, recently very small and very accurate "mlcrobrldge" semlconductor chlp sensors have been descrlbed ln whlch etched semlconductor "mlcrobrldges" are used as condltlon or flow sensors. Such sensors mlght lnclude, for example, a palr of thln fllm sensors t 33662 1 around a thln fllm heater. Semlconductor chlp sensors of the class descrlbed are treated in a rnore detalled manner ln one or more of patents such as U.S. Patents 4,478,076, 4,478,077, 4,501,144, 4,651,564 and 4,683,159, all of common asslgnee wlth the present lnvent lon .
It ls apparent, however, that lt has been necessary to address the measurement of speclflc heat cp, and thermal conductance, k, of a fluld of lnterest wlth separate and dlstlnct devlces. Not only ls thls qulte expenslve, lt also has other 10 drawbacks . For example, the necesslty of separate lnst ruments to deterrnlne speclf lc heat and therrnal conduct lvlty may not allow the data conslstency and accuracy needed for useful fluld process stream (gas or llquld) characterl~atlon because the requlred degree of correlat lon may not be present .
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention overcomes many disadvantages associated with the determination of both specific heat, cp, and thermal conductivity, k, by providing simple techniques which allow accurate determination of both properties in a sample of interest using a single sensing system. The present invention contemplates generating an energy or temperature pulse in one or more heater elements disposed in and closely coupled to the fluid medium (gas or liquid) of interest. Characteristic values of k and cp of the fluid of interest then cause corresponding changes in the time-variable temperature response of the heater to the pulse. Under relatively static sample flow conditions this, in turn, induces corresponding changes in the time-variable response of one or more temperature responsive sensors coupled to the heater principally via the fluid medium of interest.
The thermal pulse of a source need be only of sufficient duration that the heater achieves a substantially steady-state temperature for a short time. This pulse produces both steady-state and transient conditions at the sensor. Thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, can be sensed within the same sensed thermal pulse hy using the steady-state temperature plateau to determine k which is then used with the rate of change of temperature in the transient condition to determine cp.
In accordance with the present invention, there is provided apparatus for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising: heater means; thermal sensor means in proximate position to said heater means and in thermal communication therewith through the fluid of 5a 64159-1076 interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature dependent output; adjustable energizing means connected to said heater means for energizing said heater means on a pulsed time-variable basis in a manner to induce both transient and substantially steady-state elevated temperature condition intervals in said thermal sensor means; first output means for providing first output signal indicative of the temperature of said thermal sensor means; means for determining the rate of change of temperature of said temperature sensor during a transient temperature interval based on time variation of said first output signal; means for determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the first output signal at steady-state elevated sensor temperature; and means for determining cp, of the fluid of interest based on k and the rate of change of the first output during a transient temperature condition.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided apparatus for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a gaseous fluid of interest, comprising: a microbridge system including a thin film resistive heater portion and a thin film resistive sensor portion in juxtaposed spaced relation, said heater and said sensor portions each having terminals, said system further being positioned in direct communication with the fluid of interest, said resistive heater thereby being thermally coupled to said sensor via said fluid of interest; adjustable electrical pulse producing means connected in energizing relation to said heater terminals for providing an energy input to the heater of a level and duration such that both intervals of transient and substantially steady-t 33662 1 5b 64159-1076 state elevated temperature conditions are induced in the sensor means via the fluid of interest; first output means for providing an electrical potential output signal indicative of the temperature of said thermal sensor means; means for determining the rate of change of temperature of said thermal sensor during a transient temperature interval based on a time interval between selected temperatures indicated by said first output signal; means for determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at steady-state elevated sensor temperature; and means for determining cp of the fluid of interest based on k and the rate of change of the sensor output signal during a transient temperature interval.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of: providing proximately positioned heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said gaseous fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature sensitive output;
providing an energy input pulse to the heater means of a level such that an interval of transient temperature change is correspondingly produced in the sensor means; providing an energy input to the heater means of a duration such than an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature is correspondingly produced in the sensor means; obtaining a sensor output related to the elevated temperature of the sensor at said steady-state temperature; determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature;
determining the rate of change of sensor output during a portion ., .
5c 64159-1076 of said transient temperature change in the sensor; and determining cp of the fluid of interest based upon the rate of change of sensor output during said interval of transient temperature change and k.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of: providing proximately positioned microbridge thin film electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature sensitive electrical output signal; providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a level such that the sensing means experiences an interval of transient temperature change and of a duration such that the sensing means experiences an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature; obtaining a sensor output related to the sensor temperature at said steady-state elevated temperature; determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the electrical sensor output signal at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature; obtaining an output related to the rate of change of temperature of the sensor during said transient temperature change; and determining cp of the gas of interest based on the rate of change of sensor output during said transient temperature change in said sensor and k.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for determining thermal conductivity, k, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of: providing proximately positioned microbridge electrical resistance heater 5d 64159-1076 and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said thermal sensor having a temperature sensitive output signal;
providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a known level and of a known duration such that the thermal sensor means achieves an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature; obtaining a sensor output signal related to the sensor temperature at said elevated steady-state temperature; and determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature 0 substantially approximated by k a4U a5 where U is the sensor output and a4 and a5 are constants.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of: providing proximately positioned microbridge electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said thermal sensor having a temperature sensitive output signal; providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a known level and of a known duration such that the thermal sensor means achieves an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature; obtaining a sensor output signal related to the sensor temperature at said elevated steady-state temperature; determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the thermal sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature substantially approximated by k a4U a5 where U is the sensor output and a4 and a5 are constants;
5e 64159-1076 obtaining an output indicative of the rate of change of temperature of the thermal sensor means by measuring the time interval for the thermal sensor temperature to change between two known temperatures; and determining cp of the fluid of interest based on the relation c p/P =a1(t2~tl)k+a2(t2 tl) 3 where al, a2 and a3 are constants P=pressure (psia) PO=reference pressure (psia) (t2-tl)=measured time span for the temperature of the thermal sensor to sensor to change between known temperatures.
~,~
Detalled Descrlptlon The present lnventlon, then, ls dlrected to a system whlch enables both the deterrnlnatlon of speclflc heat, cp and thermal conductlvlty, k. The system utlllzes a thermal pulse approach whlch ls based on ..
generating an energy or temperature pulse in a heater, which is coupled to a sensor primarily by the fluid medium (gas or liquid) of interest. Both quantities can be determined from a single pulse.
Thermal conductivity and specific heat of each fluid of interest produce characteristic transient and steady-state temperature reactions in a proximate sensor as exemplified in Figure 6.
In the preferred implementation, specific temperatures, as Tl and T2 in Figure 6, are selected as "marker" points with respect to the sensor. These marker points are used to reference the determination of the time periods, as tl - t2, required to achieve the corresponding temperature rise(s) or fall(s) in the sensor(s) between the marker points. As will be discussed, the sensor or sensors are located in predetermined spaced relation to the heater or heaters, but preferably physically separated therefrom so that the proximate influence of the solid heater material(s) is reduced and the coupling of the heater with the sensor or sensors by the fluid of interest is relatively enhanced.
The preferred embodiments of the approach of the invention contemplate disposing spaced microspec sized heating and sensing elements in a relatively static (zero flow) sample of the fluid of interest. The , ~ 33662 1 mlcrosensor system or "mlcrobrldge" system, as lt wlll be referred to hereln, though not llrnltlng, ls presently preferred for several reasons. The system ls extremely fast reactlng, ls very accurate, very sensltlve because of lts advantageous coupllng to the fluld of lnterest and small and adaptable to a varlety of conflguratlons.
The mlcrobrldge sernlconductor chip sensor contemplated, for example, ln certain embodlments preferred for the invention may resemble the form of one or more of the rnlcrobrldge systerns lllustrated ln the patents ldentlfied above. Such a system is exempllfied by Flgures 1-5 taken frorn U.S. Patent 4,501,144. A
dlscusslon of that example wlll now be presented as lt wlll be helpful ln understandlng the present lnventlon. I~hlle the present dlscusslon is belleved sufficlent, for addltional informatlon reference may be rnade to the rnlcrobrldge related patents llsted herelnbefore.
8 The lllustrated embodlrnent of Flgures 1-5 conternplates a pair of thln fllm temperature sensors 22 and 24, a thln fllm heater 26 and a base 20 supporting the sensors and heater out of contact wlth the base. Sensors 22 and 29 are disposed on opposlte sides of heater 26. Body 20 is a serniconductor, preferably sllicon, chosen because of lts adaptablllty to precislon etching techniques and ease of electronic cl-lip.
producibility. The embodiment includes two identical temperature sensing resistor grids 22 and 24 acting as the thin film heat sensors and a centrally located heater resistor grid 26 acting as the thin film heater.
Sensors 22 and 24 and heater 26 may be fabricated of any suitable, stable metal or alloy film.
In Figure 8, the metal used was a nickel-iron alloy sometimes referred to as permalloy, with a composition of 80 percent nickel and 20 percent iron. The sensor and heater grids are encapsulated in a thin film of dielectric, typically comprising layers 28 and 29 and preferably silicon nitride, Si3N4, to form thin film members. In the embodiment shown in Figures 1 and 2, the sensor comprises two thin film members 32 and 34, member 32 comprising sensor 22 and 34 comprising sensor 24, each member comprising one-half of heater 26 and having a preferred dimension of 150 microns wide and 400 microns long.
The embodiment of the system further describes an accurately defined air space 30 which contemplates air space effectively surrounding elements 22, 24, 26.
The effectively surrounding air space is achieved by fabricating the structure on silicon surface 36, thin film elements 22, 24 and 26 having a preferred thickness of approximately 0.08 to 0.12 micron with lines on the order of 5 microns wide and spaces between lines on the - t 33662 1 order of 5 microns, the elements encapsulated in a thin silicon nitride film preferably having a total thickness of approximately 0.8 microns or less, and by subsequently etching an accurately defined air space, of about 100 microns deep, into silicon body 20 beneath members 32 and 34.
Members 32 and 34 connect to top surface 36 of semiconductor body 20 at one or more edges of depression or air space 30. As illustrated in Figure 3, members 32 and 34 may be bridged across depression 30; alternately, for example, members 32 and 34 could be cantilevered over depression 30.
Heat flows from the heater to the sensor by means of both solid and fluid couplings there between.
Of note is the fact that silicon nitride (Si3N4) is a highly effective solid thermal insulator. Because the connecting silicon nitride film within members 32 and 34 is a good insulator, heat transmission through the solid does not dominate the propagation of heat from heater 26. This further enhances the relative amount of the heat conducted to sensing resistor 22 and 24 from heater resistor 26 by flow through the surrounding fluid rather than through the supporting nitride film. Moreover, the supporting silicon nitride film has a low enough thermal conductivity that sensing resistor grids 22 and 24 can be located immediately adjacent or juxtaposed to heating ,. ~
~ s resistor grid 26. Thus, sensing resistor grids 22 and 24 are in effect suspended rigidly in the air space proximate heater resistor 26 and act as thermal probes to measure the temperature of the air near and in the plane of heater resistor grid 26.
The operation of the system in sensing air flow is described in detail in the above-referenced U.S.
patent 4,501,144. Typical circuit implementation is discussed briefly with reference to Figures 4 and 5 to add some insight. The heater control circuit illustrated in Figure 4 uses a Wheatstone bridge 46 which further typically includes heater resistor 26 and a resistor 40 in its first leg and a resistor 42, heat sink resistor 38, and a resistor 44 in its second leg.
An error integrator includes amplifiers 48 and 50 keeps bridge 46 balanced by varying the potential across it and thus the power dissipated in heater resistors 26.
The circuitry of Figure 5 monitors the resistance difference between downstream sensor 24 and upstream sensor 22. This circuitry includes a constant current source 52 comprising an amplifier 72 and a differential amplifier 54 further including amplifiers 68 and 70. The constant current source drives a Wheatstone bridge comprising two high impedance resistors 56 and 58 in one leg and the two sensing resistors 22 and 24 with a nulling potentiometer 60 in i.~
the other leg. The gain of differential amplifier 54 is adjusted by potentiometer 62. Output 64 provides an output voltage that is proportional to the resistance difference between the two sensing resistors 22 and 24.
To get some concept of the small size of the microbridge, the power required by heater resistor to heat such a device 200C, for example, above ambient temperature is less than o.OlO watt. The exceedingly small thermal mass of the heater and sensor element structures, their excellent coupling to the surrounding fluid because of a high surface/volume ratio, and the thermal insulation provided by the thin silicon nitride connecting them to the supporting silicon body, and the surrounding air space, all contribute to produce a system well suited to fast and accurate sensing.
Response time constants as short as 0.005 second have been measured. Consequently, sensor elements can respond very rapidly to proximate environmental changes.
Now with reference to the implementation of the present invention, Figures 7a, 7b, and 7c, depict three slightly differing embodiments or configurations representative in terms of number and arrangement of the heaters and sensors which can be used in this invention. In Figure 7a, in contrast to Figure 1, all of the elements 122, 124 and 126 are used as heaters.
. , , Figure 7b is an embodiment which is similar to the embodiment of Figure 1 with thin film element 126 acting as heater and elements 122 and 124 acting as sensors.
The embodiment of Figure 7c, represents the preferred arrangement in which the element 122 acts as heater and element 124 acts as sensor. The effective gap and thus the thermal isolation between heater and sensor is desirably wider in the embodiment of Figure 7c.
The actual general geometric structure of the embodiments of Figures 1-3, and 7a-7c is more clearly illustrated in the scanning electron micrograph (SEM) photo of Figure 8. The precision with which the cavity and bridge elements are defined and located in spaced relation, as Figure 8 depicts, is particularly noteworthy. The SEM represents a magnification such that the indicated length of 0.010" appears as shown.
In the implementation of the invention disclosed herein particular attention is directed to (1) setting specific temperature markers in the sensor to determine the time periods needed for achieving the corresponding temperature changes, (2) using temperature sensors which are physically separated from the heater so that the direct influence of the heater and heat conducted to the sensor other than via the fluid of interest is reduced, and (3) using a pulse which reaches at least a momentary steady-state plateau to determine k, which then is used with the transient measure to determine cp.
Figure 6 graphically depicts a square wave electrical energy pulse 130 to the heater as at 126 which results in quasi square wave heat pulses released by the heater. These in turn, result in reactive curves as at 131, 132 and 133 at the sensor which vary as described below. The pulse applied to the heater, for example, may have a height of about 4 volts with a pulse width of 100 ms. Since the heater is closely coupled through the fluid medium to the sensors, the family of curves 131, 132 and 133 resembles the shape of the input pulse 130. They show the heat response in the sensors 122 and 124. Figure 12 is a photograph of one oscilloscope trace showing temperature rise and fall versus time for dry air at atmospheric pressure. It uses a different scale for time than does Figure 6, but illustrates the curve form produced by the pulsed input. The curves generally include beginning and ending transient portions flanking a relatively steady-state central portion. The relatively quick response of the sensor allows a relatively long steady-state to exist even with a pulse of 100 ms. Of course, the curves are affected by factors such as pressure and temperature as they influence the effective thermal conductivity and specific heat of the particular `- 1336621 fluid of interest.
Heat flowing from the heater element or elements to the sensor element or elements is conducted both through the fluid and through the solid semiconductor element support substrate or the like. It is advantageous with respect to the measurement of k or cp of the fluid of interest that the amount of heat reaching the sensor through the solid connections be minimized so that substantially all the measured thermal effect is generated via the fluid of interest.
With respect to the transfer of heat to the sensor(s) some background information regarding the propagation of heat or temperature waves is presented.
The speed of propagation, v, of a one dimensional wave (if it features an exponential decay profile) is constant and given by the expression:
v = DT/a = (DT/b)0-5, (1) where:
a is an exponential decay constant b is the rise time constant at a fixed location and DT is the thermal diffusivity.
A complete list of nomenclature and subscripts with units appears in Table I, below. DT is related to k and cp by the expression ,~ .
DT = k/cp (2) DT, therefore, if known, may be a key to obtaining cp. The rise time constant, b, was measured to be about 4 msec. For typical gases, DT ranges from 1.7 cm2/s for He to .054 cm2/s for C3H8. Metals exhibit high values such as 1.7, 1.1 and .18 cm2/s respectively for Ag, Cu and Fe. Insulators, however, are even lower than the gases at .004 cm2/s for glass and .0068 cm2 for Si3N4 which, as discussed above, is a good insulator. The propagation speed, v, in a typical gas sample then is about (1/0.004) 5 = 15 cm/s. This compares with (0.0068/0.004) 5 = 1.3 cm/s for Si3N4, assuming that the same rise time constant of about 4 ms is applicable to both the one measured in the Si3N4 and the actual one in the gas.
The effect is that the influence of the temperature wave propagating from one thin film strip, that is, the heater, to a second thin film strip, the sensor, both being embedded in a membrane of Si3N4, is faster for the gas than for the Si3N4. This also supports the choice of a material such as Si3N4, since it reduces the contribution of heat flow through the solid media. This is beneficial to the accuracy of the system.
Typical microbridge embodiments are illustrated by Figures 7a - 7c. They will now be explained in greater detail.
TABLE I - NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Uni`ts a Exponential Decay Constant cm al-an Constant A Area of Heat Transfer to Microbridge cm2 or to Gas b Rise Time Constant at a Fixed Location C/s cp Specific Heat cal/(cm3~c) DT Thermal Diffusivity, DT = k/cp cm2/5 k Thermal Conductivity cal/(smC) L Length of Thermal Conductance Path cm in Gas or Solid P Pressure of Gas psia Q Power of Heat Release Rate watts Ro Resistance at Room Temperature ohms t Time s T Absolute Temperature C
U Bridge Output or Amplified Bridge V
Output V Volume of Gas or Solid (Microbridge) cm3 v Speed of Propagation cm/s x Temperature coefficient of resistance C 1 SUBSCRIPTS
c Conduction S Microbridge or Solid g Gas o Room, Reference or Gas Temperature Without Microbridge Heating h Heater or Hot m Middle or Medium ~ 33662 1 The configuration of Figure 7a involves using the same microresistance 122, 124, 126 for the heating pulse and the sensing task. In this embodiment bf the resistive heater-sensor element may be one leg of a conventional resistive Wheatstone bridge in a control circuit.
Figure 7b depicts an arrangement wherein the center microresistance structure 126 is used as a heater flanked by two symmetrically located outer sensing resistance elements 122 and 124. The elements 122 and 124 are separated from the heater 126 by a narrow gap.
Figure 7(c) shows an embodiment configuration in which the left element of the bridge 122 is used as the heating element and the right element 124 as the sensor. This embodiment takes advantage of a rather large central gap to achieve improved thermal isolation between the heater and the sensor.
Figure 9 shows a modified control circuit which uses the center microresistance 126 as heater, while the sensing task is performed by the two resistors 122 and 124. The dual heater sensor configuration corresponds to Figure 7b and the circuit is representative of typical sensor/measurement circuit. Figure 9 includes a timer 140 providing square-wave electrical pulses to the heater 126. The heater couples the heat pulse to the sensors 122 and 124 in the bridge 142. The output of the bridge is connected through an amplifier 143 to a pair of comparators 144 and 145 which operate "start"
and "stop" inputs to a counter 146 which counts 10 mHz clock pulses. The counter counts measure the time interval (t2 - tl) between temperatures T2 & T
illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 9a is similar to Figure 9, but more detailed. The bridge configuration is the heater -space-sensor configuration of Figure 7c. The sensor resistance arm of the microbridge is set into a Wheatstone bridge 150 at 124. Another proximate resistive arm 122 is fed a voltage pulse from pulse generator 151 to provide a heat pulse into the microbridge element 126. The Wheatstone bridge 150 also may contain a nulling balancing resistor 152 which can be used in the manner of potentiometer 60 in Figure 5 to initially zero the device. The microbridge resistor sensor 124 in the Wheatstone bridge receives the heat pulse from heater element 122 principally by thermal conduction through the surrounding fluid. Some conduction, of course, does occur through the solid microbridge substrate and surroundings.
The circuitry of Figure 9a is conventional and can readily be explained with reference to its functional operation with regard to processing the bridge output signal. The voltage output signals of the .~--. .
,~ .
bridge 150 are amplified by differential amplifiers 153 and 154 in a differential amplifier section. The imbalance signal is further amplified by a high gain amplifier at 155. The signal at 156 as is the case with the signal at 147 in Figure 9 is in the form of a DC
voltage signal, U, the amplitude of which is solely related to the thermal conductivity of the fluid of interest as will be discussed above.
The remainder of the circuitry of Figure 9a includes a DC level clamping amplifier 157 and isolation amplifier 158. The temperature level, time-related switching and counting circuitry includes comparators 159 and 160 together with Nand gates 161 and 162 having outputs which are connected to the counter timing device (not shown) as in Figure 9. By measuring the time needed for the sensor temperature to rise or fall between two or more known temperature values or markers as represented by sensor resistance or bridge voltage outputs a measure related to the specific heat per unit volume, cp of the fluid of interest is obtained. The timing device may be a conventional 10 MHz pulse counter or the like. Again, this is illustrated schematically in Figure 6.
The output signal from the Wheatstone bridge, U, represents the voltage imbalance caused by the temperature change in microbridge sensor or sensors ~y~
induced by the corresponding heater pulse output.
Because the magnitude of this imbalance is related directly to the amount of energy absorbed by the sensor or sensors, the amplitude of the signal is directly related to the thermal conductivity, k, of the conducting media in a manner next explained.
Figure 6 shows that during much of the about lOOms wide pulse period the temperature of the sensor reaches and maintains a constant value. During this time, the influence of the energy sink or source terms represented by specific heat are zero, which means that only thermal conductivity governs the value of the sensor temperature.
Figure 12 is a plot of temperature rise inthe form of bridge output, U, (Figure 9 or 9a) using the sensing arrangement of Figure 7(b) versus time in milliseconds for various gases at atmospheric pressure.
Curves for methane, dry air, ethane and a vacuum are presented. In this specific embodiment there was a heater resistance of 800 ohms, a pulse height of 2.5 volts, and a pulse width of 100 ms. Temperature markers t, and t2 are shown on the graph. These markers relate to those of Figure 13 which shows a graphical presentation of heat up time versus pressure for several gases with a sensor-heater such as that shown in Figure 7b and using the T2-Tl, marked in Figure 11.
`- 1 33662 1 The literature value of the thermal conductivity of several gases has been plotted vs. the measured sensor temperature expressed directly in terms of the measured Wheatstone bridge imbalance potential, U. This relationship has been derived empirically for a microbridge of the type depicted in Figure 7(c) and is plotted in Figure 13, using the least squares method in a multiple regression analysis to achieve the best fit curve. The relation can be linearized over a modest span sufficient for the purpose of the invention. Other combination configurations of heater/sensor embodiments can likewise be calibrated using known gases or gases of known k. Thus, using an off-the-shelf flow sensor of the type 7(c) in the circuit 9(a), a 4.0V pulse of 100 ms duration was used.
This yielded an approximate linear relationship between U and kg of the form kg = a4U + aS (3) where a4 = -25.8~07 and a5 = 181.778 for the above conditions.
The above then achieves the calibration of the sensor for kg. The linear approximation holds over enough of a span to provide accurate measurements.
Similar relations may be derived under other measurement conditions including additional pressure correction terms.
Further details related to determinng the coefficients for the algorithms to compute cp are described next. This determination requires that the measuring system be calibrated first, which consists of determining the coefficients al, a2, and a3, of the alogirthm to then computer cp.
Assuming a two-dimensional model for heat transfer in the microbridge, see Figures 7a-7c, the measured sensor temperature response may be described with reference to the following processes (at zero gas flow):
l) Heat release by the heater element film.
AND SPECIFIC HEAT
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Fleld of the Inventlon The present inventlon relates to the rneasurernent of certaln physlcal propertles of flulds and, more partlcularly, to the determlnatlon of both the speclflc heat and thermal conductlvlty of gases. In a preferred embodlment a trapped gas sarnple transrnlts steady state and translent responses to lnput energy of llmlted duratlon whlch can be measured electrlcally as by extractlng the lnfluence of the lnput energy ln the form of measurable change ln temperature of an approprlate sensor ln contact wlth the gas of lnterest.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
Flgures 1, 2, and 3 are dlfferent vlews of a prlor art embodlrnent of a rnlcrobrldge flow sensor.
Flgures 4 and 5 are typlcal clrcults for use wlth the sensors of Flgures 1-3.
Flgure 6 ls a schematlc representatlon of sensor tlrne/ternperature response curves accordlng to a heater pulse.
Flgures 7a, 7b, and 7c, represent several heater/sensor conflguratlons of mlcrobrldge systems ln accordance wlth the lnventlon.
Flgure 8 ls a scannlng-electron-mlcroscope (SEM) photo of the mlcrostructure of a typlcal mlcrobrldge sensor.
Flgure 9 ls a partlal schernatlc and block dlagram of a clrcult for use wlth a sensor as deplcted ln Flgure 7(b) ln 6gl59-1076 accordance wlth the lnventlon.
Flgure 9a is a rnore detalled circult schernatlc wlth reference to Flgure 7c.
Flgure 10 ls a schematlc block dlagrarn of the system of t~le lnventlon lncludlng callbratlon and use functlons.
Flgure ll ls a scope trace representlng the temperature slgnal rlse versus tlme, for the conflguratlon of Flgure 7(c) ln response to a heater pulse for dry alr at atrnospherlc pressure.
Flgure 12 ls a graphlcal representatlon of the temperature slgnal rlse versus tlme, for the conflguratlon of Flgure 7(c) ln response to the heater pulse for varlous gases at atmospherlc pressure as lndlcated.
Flgure 13 ls a graphlcal representatlon of thermal conductlvlty determlnatlon based on the brldge output of Flgure 9(a).
Flgure 14 ls a theoretlcal graphlcal representatlon of sensor heat-up tlme versus pressure for several gases uslng the sensor conflguratlon of Flgure 7b.
Flgure 15 ls slmllar to Flgure 14 based on data taken by a sensor of the type deplcted ln Flgure 7(b) calculated ln accordance wlth the lnventlon.
Figure 16 ls a graphlcal representatlon of sensor heat-up tlme versus pressure for several gases uslng the sensor conflguratlon of Flgure 7c.
Flgure 17 ls a graphlcal representatlon of sensor coollng tlme versus pressure for several gases uslng the sensor conflguratlon of Flgure 7c.
~ ,n - t33662169159-1076 Prlor Art In the prlor art the tradltlonal approach to determlnlng speclflc heat, cp, has been vla calorlmetry uslng reverslble step lncreases of energy fed to a therrnally lsolated or adlabatlc system. Such devlces are bulky, slow and cumbersome. Llttle progress has been made toward the automatlon of a rapld rnethod to make thls determlnatlon.
Wlth respect to rneasurlng thermal conductlvlty ln flulds varlous types of detectors have been used. Thls lncludes reslstance brldge type sensors. One such devlce ls descrlbed ln U.S. Patent 4,735,082 ln whlch thermal conductlvlty ls detected uslng a Wheatstone brldge technlque ln whlch a fllament ln one dlagonal of the brldge ls placed or posltloned ln a cavlty through whlch the sarnple gas of lnterest ls passed. The fllament ls used to lntroduce a serles of amounts of thermal energy lnto the fluld of lnterest at alternatlng levels by varylng the lnput voltage whlch, are, ln turn, detected at the other dlagonal as voltage dlfference slgnals. Integratlon of the changes of the value of the successlve stream of slgnals ylelds a slgnal lndlcatlve of the heat dlsslpatlon through the fluld, and thus, the thermal conductlvlty of the fluld.
Further to the rneasurernent of therrnally lnduced changes ln electrlcal reslstance, as wlll be dlscussed ln greater detall below, especlally wlth reference to prlor art Flgures 1-5, recently very small and very accurate "mlcrobrldge" semlconductor chlp sensors have been descrlbed ln whlch etched semlconductor "mlcrobrldges" are used as condltlon or flow sensors. Such sensors mlght lnclude, for example, a palr of thln fllm sensors t 33662 1 around a thln fllm heater. Semlconductor chlp sensors of the class descrlbed are treated in a rnore detalled manner ln one or more of patents such as U.S. Patents 4,478,076, 4,478,077, 4,501,144, 4,651,564 and 4,683,159, all of common asslgnee wlth the present lnvent lon .
It ls apparent, however, that lt has been necessary to address the measurement of speclflc heat cp, and thermal conductance, k, of a fluld of lnterest wlth separate and dlstlnct devlces. Not only ls thls qulte expenslve, lt also has other 10 drawbacks . For example, the necesslty of separate lnst ruments to deterrnlne speclf lc heat and therrnal conduct lvlty may not allow the data conslstency and accuracy needed for useful fluld process stream (gas or llquld) characterl~atlon because the requlred degree of correlat lon may not be present .
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention overcomes many disadvantages associated with the determination of both specific heat, cp, and thermal conductivity, k, by providing simple techniques which allow accurate determination of both properties in a sample of interest using a single sensing system. The present invention contemplates generating an energy or temperature pulse in one or more heater elements disposed in and closely coupled to the fluid medium (gas or liquid) of interest. Characteristic values of k and cp of the fluid of interest then cause corresponding changes in the time-variable temperature response of the heater to the pulse. Under relatively static sample flow conditions this, in turn, induces corresponding changes in the time-variable response of one or more temperature responsive sensors coupled to the heater principally via the fluid medium of interest.
The thermal pulse of a source need be only of sufficient duration that the heater achieves a substantially steady-state temperature for a short time. This pulse produces both steady-state and transient conditions at the sensor. Thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, can be sensed within the same sensed thermal pulse hy using the steady-state temperature plateau to determine k which is then used with the rate of change of temperature in the transient condition to determine cp.
In accordance with the present invention, there is provided apparatus for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising: heater means; thermal sensor means in proximate position to said heater means and in thermal communication therewith through the fluid of 5a 64159-1076 interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature dependent output; adjustable energizing means connected to said heater means for energizing said heater means on a pulsed time-variable basis in a manner to induce both transient and substantially steady-state elevated temperature condition intervals in said thermal sensor means; first output means for providing first output signal indicative of the temperature of said thermal sensor means; means for determining the rate of change of temperature of said temperature sensor during a transient temperature interval based on time variation of said first output signal; means for determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the first output signal at steady-state elevated sensor temperature; and means for determining cp, of the fluid of interest based on k and the rate of change of the first output during a transient temperature condition.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided apparatus for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a gaseous fluid of interest, comprising: a microbridge system including a thin film resistive heater portion and a thin film resistive sensor portion in juxtaposed spaced relation, said heater and said sensor portions each having terminals, said system further being positioned in direct communication with the fluid of interest, said resistive heater thereby being thermally coupled to said sensor via said fluid of interest; adjustable electrical pulse producing means connected in energizing relation to said heater terminals for providing an energy input to the heater of a level and duration such that both intervals of transient and substantially steady-t 33662 1 5b 64159-1076 state elevated temperature conditions are induced in the sensor means via the fluid of interest; first output means for providing an electrical potential output signal indicative of the temperature of said thermal sensor means; means for determining the rate of change of temperature of said thermal sensor during a transient temperature interval based on a time interval between selected temperatures indicated by said first output signal; means for determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at steady-state elevated sensor temperature; and means for determining cp of the fluid of interest based on k and the rate of change of the sensor output signal during a transient temperature interval.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of: providing proximately positioned heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said gaseous fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature sensitive output;
providing an energy input pulse to the heater means of a level such that an interval of transient temperature change is correspondingly produced in the sensor means; providing an energy input to the heater means of a duration such than an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature is correspondingly produced in the sensor means; obtaining a sensor output related to the elevated temperature of the sensor at said steady-state temperature; determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature;
determining the rate of change of sensor output during a portion ., .
5c 64159-1076 of said transient temperature change in the sensor; and determining cp of the fluid of interest based upon the rate of change of sensor output during said interval of transient temperature change and k.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of: providing proximately positioned microbridge thin film electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature sensitive electrical output signal; providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a level such that the sensing means experiences an interval of transient temperature change and of a duration such that the sensing means experiences an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature; obtaining a sensor output related to the sensor temperature at said steady-state elevated temperature; determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the electrical sensor output signal at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature; obtaining an output related to the rate of change of temperature of the sensor during said transient temperature change; and determining cp of the gas of interest based on the rate of change of sensor output during said transient temperature change in said sensor and k.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for determining thermal conductivity, k, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of: providing proximately positioned microbridge electrical resistance heater 5d 64159-1076 and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said thermal sensor having a temperature sensitive output signal;
providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a known level and of a known duration such that the thermal sensor means achieves an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature; obtaining a sensor output signal related to the sensor temperature at said elevated steady-state temperature; and determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature 0 substantially approximated by k a4U a5 where U is the sensor output and a4 and a5 are constants.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of: providing proximately positioned microbridge electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said thermal sensor having a temperature sensitive output signal; providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a known level and of a known duration such that the thermal sensor means achieves an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature; obtaining a sensor output signal related to the sensor temperature at said elevated steady-state temperature; determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the thermal sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature substantially approximated by k a4U a5 where U is the sensor output and a4 and a5 are constants;
5e 64159-1076 obtaining an output indicative of the rate of change of temperature of the thermal sensor means by measuring the time interval for the thermal sensor temperature to change between two known temperatures; and determining cp of the fluid of interest based on the relation c p/P =a1(t2~tl)k+a2(t2 tl) 3 where al, a2 and a3 are constants P=pressure (psia) PO=reference pressure (psia) (t2-tl)=measured time span for the temperature of the thermal sensor to sensor to change between known temperatures.
~,~
Detalled Descrlptlon The present lnventlon, then, ls dlrected to a system whlch enables both the deterrnlnatlon of speclflc heat, cp and thermal conductlvlty, k. The system utlllzes a thermal pulse approach whlch ls based on ..
generating an energy or temperature pulse in a heater, which is coupled to a sensor primarily by the fluid medium (gas or liquid) of interest. Both quantities can be determined from a single pulse.
Thermal conductivity and specific heat of each fluid of interest produce characteristic transient and steady-state temperature reactions in a proximate sensor as exemplified in Figure 6.
In the preferred implementation, specific temperatures, as Tl and T2 in Figure 6, are selected as "marker" points with respect to the sensor. These marker points are used to reference the determination of the time periods, as tl - t2, required to achieve the corresponding temperature rise(s) or fall(s) in the sensor(s) between the marker points. As will be discussed, the sensor or sensors are located in predetermined spaced relation to the heater or heaters, but preferably physically separated therefrom so that the proximate influence of the solid heater material(s) is reduced and the coupling of the heater with the sensor or sensors by the fluid of interest is relatively enhanced.
The preferred embodiments of the approach of the invention contemplate disposing spaced microspec sized heating and sensing elements in a relatively static (zero flow) sample of the fluid of interest. The , ~ 33662 1 mlcrosensor system or "mlcrobrldge" system, as lt wlll be referred to hereln, though not llrnltlng, ls presently preferred for several reasons. The system ls extremely fast reactlng, ls very accurate, very sensltlve because of lts advantageous coupllng to the fluld of lnterest and small and adaptable to a varlety of conflguratlons.
The mlcrobrldge sernlconductor chip sensor contemplated, for example, ln certain embodlments preferred for the invention may resemble the form of one or more of the rnlcrobrldge systerns lllustrated ln the patents ldentlfied above. Such a system is exempllfied by Flgures 1-5 taken frorn U.S. Patent 4,501,144. A
dlscusslon of that example wlll now be presented as lt wlll be helpful ln understandlng the present lnventlon. I~hlle the present dlscusslon is belleved sufficlent, for addltional informatlon reference may be rnade to the rnlcrobrldge related patents llsted herelnbefore.
8 The lllustrated embodlrnent of Flgures 1-5 conternplates a pair of thln fllm temperature sensors 22 and 24, a thln fllm heater 26 and a base 20 supporting the sensors and heater out of contact wlth the base. Sensors 22 and 29 are disposed on opposlte sides of heater 26. Body 20 is a serniconductor, preferably sllicon, chosen because of lts adaptablllty to precislon etching techniques and ease of electronic cl-lip.
producibility. The embodiment includes two identical temperature sensing resistor grids 22 and 24 acting as the thin film heat sensors and a centrally located heater resistor grid 26 acting as the thin film heater.
Sensors 22 and 24 and heater 26 may be fabricated of any suitable, stable metal or alloy film.
In Figure 8, the metal used was a nickel-iron alloy sometimes referred to as permalloy, with a composition of 80 percent nickel and 20 percent iron. The sensor and heater grids are encapsulated in a thin film of dielectric, typically comprising layers 28 and 29 and preferably silicon nitride, Si3N4, to form thin film members. In the embodiment shown in Figures 1 and 2, the sensor comprises two thin film members 32 and 34, member 32 comprising sensor 22 and 34 comprising sensor 24, each member comprising one-half of heater 26 and having a preferred dimension of 150 microns wide and 400 microns long.
The embodiment of the system further describes an accurately defined air space 30 which contemplates air space effectively surrounding elements 22, 24, 26.
The effectively surrounding air space is achieved by fabricating the structure on silicon surface 36, thin film elements 22, 24 and 26 having a preferred thickness of approximately 0.08 to 0.12 micron with lines on the order of 5 microns wide and spaces between lines on the - t 33662 1 order of 5 microns, the elements encapsulated in a thin silicon nitride film preferably having a total thickness of approximately 0.8 microns or less, and by subsequently etching an accurately defined air space, of about 100 microns deep, into silicon body 20 beneath members 32 and 34.
Members 32 and 34 connect to top surface 36 of semiconductor body 20 at one or more edges of depression or air space 30. As illustrated in Figure 3, members 32 and 34 may be bridged across depression 30; alternately, for example, members 32 and 34 could be cantilevered over depression 30.
Heat flows from the heater to the sensor by means of both solid and fluid couplings there between.
Of note is the fact that silicon nitride (Si3N4) is a highly effective solid thermal insulator. Because the connecting silicon nitride film within members 32 and 34 is a good insulator, heat transmission through the solid does not dominate the propagation of heat from heater 26. This further enhances the relative amount of the heat conducted to sensing resistor 22 and 24 from heater resistor 26 by flow through the surrounding fluid rather than through the supporting nitride film. Moreover, the supporting silicon nitride film has a low enough thermal conductivity that sensing resistor grids 22 and 24 can be located immediately adjacent or juxtaposed to heating ,. ~
~ s resistor grid 26. Thus, sensing resistor grids 22 and 24 are in effect suspended rigidly in the air space proximate heater resistor 26 and act as thermal probes to measure the temperature of the air near and in the plane of heater resistor grid 26.
The operation of the system in sensing air flow is described in detail in the above-referenced U.S.
patent 4,501,144. Typical circuit implementation is discussed briefly with reference to Figures 4 and 5 to add some insight. The heater control circuit illustrated in Figure 4 uses a Wheatstone bridge 46 which further typically includes heater resistor 26 and a resistor 40 in its first leg and a resistor 42, heat sink resistor 38, and a resistor 44 in its second leg.
An error integrator includes amplifiers 48 and 50 keeps bridge 46 balanced by varying the potential across it and thus the power dissipated in heater resistors 26.
The circuitry of Figure 5 monitors the resistance difference between downstream sensor 24 and upstream sensor 22. This circuitry includes a constant current source 52 comprising an amplifier 72 and a differential amplifier 54 further including amplifiers 68 and 70. The constant current source drives a Wheatstone bridge comprising two high impedance resistors 56 and 58 in one leg and the two sensing resistors 22 and 24 with a nulling potentiometer 60 in i.~
the other leg. The gain of differential amplifier 54 is adjusted by potentiometer 62. Output 64 provides an output voltage that is proportional to the resistance difference between the two sensing resistors 22 and 24.
To get some concept of the small size of the microbridge, the power required by heater resistor to heat such a device 200C, for example, above ambient temperature is less than o.OlO watt. The exceedingly small thermal mass of the heater and sensor element structures, their excellent coupling to the surrounding fluid because of a high surface/volume ratio, and the thermal insulation provided by the thin silicon nitride connecting them to the supporting silicon body, and the surrounding air space, all contribute to produce a system well suited to fast and accurate sensing.
Response time constants as short as 0.005 second have been measured. Consequently, sensor elements can respond very rapidly to proximate environmental changes.
Now with reference to the implementation of the present invention, Figures 7a, 7b, and 7c, depict three slightly differing embodiments or configurations representative in terms of number and arrangement of the heaters and sensors which can be used in this invention. In Figure 7a, in contrast to Figure 1, all of the elements 122, 124 and 126 are used as heaters.
. , , Figure 7b is an embodiment which is similar to the embodiment of Figure 1 with thin film element 126 acting as heater and elements 122 and 124 acting as sensors.
The embodiment of Figure 7c, represents the preferred arrangement in which the element 122 acts as heater and element 124 acts as sensor. The effective gap and thus the thermal isolation between heater and sensor is desirably wider in the embodiment of Figure 7c.
The actual general geometric structure of the embodiments of Figures 1-3, and 7a-7c is more clearly illustrated in the scanning electron micrograph (SEM) photo of Figure 8. The precision with which the cavity and bridge elements are defined and located in spaced relation, as Figure 8 depicts, is particularly noteworthy. The SEM represents a magnification such that the indicated length of 0.010" appears as shown.
In the implementation of the invention disclosed herein particular attention is directed to (1) setting specific temperature markers in the sensor to determine the time periods needed for achieving the corresponding temperature changes, (2) using temperature sensors which are physically separated from the heater so that the direct influence of the heater and heat conducted to the sensor other than via the fluid of interest is reduced, and (3) using a pulse which reaches at least a momentary steady-state plateau to determine k, which then is used with the transient measure to determine cp.
Figure 6 graphically depicts a square wave electrical energy pulse 130 to the heater as at 126 which results in quasi square wave heat pulses released by the heater. These in turn, result in reactive curves as at 131, 132 and 133 at the sensor which vary as described below. The pulse applied to the heater, for example, may have a height of about 4 volts with a pulse width of 100 ms. Since the heater is closely coupled through the fluid medium to the sensors, the family of curves 131, 132 and 133 resembles the shape of the input pulse 130. They show the heat response in the sensors 122 and 124. Figure 12 is a photograph of one oscilloscope trace showing temperature rise and fall versus time for dry air at atmospheric pressure. It uses a different scale for time than does Figure 6, but illustrates the curve form produced by the pulsed input. The curves generally include beginning and ending transient portions flanking a relatively steady-state central portion. The relatively quick response of the sensor allows a relatively long steady-state to exist even with a pulse of 100 ms. Of course, the curves are affected by factors such as pressure and temperature as they influence the effective thermal conductivity and specific heat of the particular `- 1336621 fluid of interest.
Heat flowing from the heater element or elements to the sensor element or elements is conducted both through the fluid and through the solid semiconductor element support substrate or the like. It is advantageous with respect to the measurement of k or cp of the fluid of interest that the amount of heat reaching the sensor through the solid connections be minimized so that substantially all the measured thermal effect is generated via the fluid of interest.
With respect to the transfer of heat to the sensor(s) some background information regarding the propagation of heat or temperature waves is presented.
The speed of propagation, v, of a one dimensional wave (if it features an exponential decay profile) is constant and given by the expression:
v = DT/a = (DT/b)0-5, (1) where:
a is an exponential decay constant b is the rise time constant at a fixed location and DT is the thermal diffusivity.
A complete list of nomenclature and subscripts with units appears in Table I, below. DT is related to k and cp by the expression ,~ .
DT = k/cp (2) DT, therefore, if known, may be a key to obtaining cp. The rise time constant, b, was measured to be about 4 msec. For typical gases, DT ranges from 1.7 cm2/s for He to .054 cm2/s for C3H8. Metals exhibit high values such as 1.7, 1.1 and .18 cm2/s respectively for Ag, Cu and Fe. Insulators, however, are even lower than the gases at .004 cm2/s for glass and .0068 cm2 for Si3N4 which, as discussed above, is a good insulator. The propagation speed, v, in a typical gas sample then is about (1/0.004) 5 = 15 cm/s. This compares with (0.0068/0.004) 5 = 1.3 cm/s for Si3N4, assuming that the same rise time constant of about 4 ms is applicable to both the one measured in the Si3N4 and the actual one in the gas.
The effect is that the influence of the temperature wave propagating from one thin film strip, that is, the heater, to a second thin film strip, the sensor, both being embedded in a membrane of Si3N4, is faster for the gas than for the Si3N4. This also supports the choice of a material such as Si3N4, since it reduces the contribution of heat flow through the solid media. This is beneficial to the accuracy of the system.
Typical microbridge embodiments are illustrated by Figures 7a - 7c. They will now be explained in greater detail.
TABLE I - NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Uni`ts a Exponential Decay Constant cm al-an Constant A Area of Heat Transfer to Microbridge cm2 or to Gas b Rise Time Constant at a Fixed Location C/s cp Specific Heat cal/(cm3~c) DT Thermal Diffusivity, DT = k/cp cm2/5 k Thermal Conductivity cal/(smC) L Length of Thermal Conductance Path cm in Gas or Solid P Pressure of Gas psia Q Power of Heat Release Rate watts Ro Resistance at Room Temperature ohms t Time s T Absolute Temperature C
U Bridge Output or Amplified Bridge V
Output V Volume of Gas or Solid (Microbridge) cm3 v Speed of Propagation cm/s x Temperature coefficient of resistance C 1 SUBSCRIPTS
c Conduction S Microbridge or Solid g Gas o Room, Reference or Gas Temperature Without Microbridge Heating h Heater or Hot m Middle or Medium ~ 33662 1 The configuration of Figure 7a involves using the same microresistance 122, 124, 126 for the heating pulse and the sensing task. In this embodiment bf the resistive heater-sensor element may be one leg of a conventional resistive Wheatstone bridge in a control circuit.
Figure 7b depicts an arrangement wherein the center microresistance structure 126 is used as a heater flanked by two symmetrically located outer sensing resistance elements 122 and 124. The elements 122 and 124 are separated from the heater 126 by a narrow gap.
Figure 7(c) shows an embodiment configuration in which the left element of the bridge 122 is used as the heating element and the right element 124 as the sensor. This embodiment takes advantage of a rather large central gap to achieve improved thermal isolation between the heater and the sensor.
Figure 9 shows a modified control circuit which uses the center microresistance 126 as heater, while the sensing task is performed by the two resistors 122 and 124. The dual heater sensor configuration corresponds to Figure 7b and the circuit is representative of typical sensor/measurement circuit. Figure 9 includes a timer 140 providing square-wave electrical pulses to the heater 126. The heater couples the heat pulse to the sensors 122 and 124 in the bridge 142. The output of the bridge is connected through an amplifier 143 to a pair of comparators 144 and 145 which operate "start"
and "stop" inputs to a counter 146 which counts 10 mHz clock pulses. The counter counts measure the time interval (t2 - tl) between temperatures T2 & T
illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 9a is similar to Figure 9, but more detailed. The bridge configuration is the heater -space-sensor configuration of Figure 7c. The sensor resistance arm of the microbridge is set into a Wheatstone bridge 150 at 124. Another proximate resistive arm 122 is fed a voltage pulse from pulse generator 151 to provide a heat pulse into the microbridge element 126. The Wheatstone bridge 150 also may contain a nulling balancing resistor 152 which can be used in the manner of potentiometer 60 in Figure 5 to initially zero the device. The microbridge resistor sensor 124 in the Wheatstone bridge receives the heat pulse from heater element 122 principally by thermal conduction through the surrounding fluid. Some conduction, of course, does occur through the solid microbridge substrate and surroundings.
The circuitry of Figure 9a is conventional and can readily be explained with reference to its functional operation with regard to processing the bridge output signal. The voltage output signals of the .~--. .
,~ .
bridge 150 are amplified by differential amplifiers 153 and 154 in a differential amplifier section. The imbalance signal is further amplified by a high gain amplifier at 155. The signal at 156 as is the case with the signal at 147 in Figure 9 is in the form of a DC
voltage signal, U, the amplitude of which is solely related to the thermal conductivity of the fluid of interest as will be discussed above.
The remainder of the circuitry of Figure 9a includes a DC level clamping amplifier 157 and isolation amplifier 158. The temperature level, time-related switching and counting circuitry includes comparators 159 and 160 together with Nand gates 161 and 162 having outputs which are connected to the counter timing device (not shown) as in Figure 9. By measuring the time needed for the sensor temperature to rise or fall between two or more known temperature values or markers as represented by sensor resistance or bridge voltage outputs a measure related to the specific heat per unit volume, cp of the fluid of interest is obtained. The timing device may be a conventional 10 MHz pulse counter or the like. Again, this is illustrated schematically in Figure 6.
The output signal from the Wheatstone bridge, U, represents the voltage imbalance caused by the temperature change in microbridge sensor or sensors ~y~
induced by the corresponding heater pulse output.
Because the magnitude of this imbalance is related directly to the amount of energy absorbed by the sensor or sensors, the amplitude of the signal is directly related to the thermal conductivity, k, of the conducting media in a manner next explained.
Figure 6 shows that during much of the about lOOms wide pulse period the temperature of the sensor reaches and maintains a constant value. During this time, the influence of the energy sink or source terms represented by specific heat are zero, which means that only thermal conductivity governs the value of the sensor temperature.
Figure 12 is a plot of temperature rise inthe form of bridge output, U, (Figure 9 or 9a) using the sensing arrangement of Figure 7(b) versus time in milliseconds for various gases at atmospheric pressure.
Curves for methane, dry air, ethane and a vacuum are presented. In this specific embodiment there was a heater resistance of 800 ohms, a pulse height of 2.5 volts, and a pulse width of 100 ms. Temperature markers t, and t2 are shown on the graph. These markers relate to those of Figure 13 which shows a graphical presentation of heat up time versus pressure for several gases with a sensor-heater such as that shown in Figure 7b and using the T2-Tl, marked in Figure 11.
`- 1 33662 1 The literature value of the thermal conductivity of several gases has been plotted vs. the measured sensor temperature expressed directly in terms of the measured Wheatstone bridge imbalance potential, U. This relationship has been derived empirically for a microbridge of the type depicted in Figure 7(c) and is plotted in Figure 13, using the least squares method in a multiple regression analysis to achieve the best fit curve. The relation can be linearized over a modest span sufficient for the purpose of the invention. Other combination configurations of heater/sensor embodiments can likewise be calibrated using known gases or gases of known k. Thus, using an off-the-shelf flow sensor of the type 7(c) in the circuit 9(a), a 4.0V pulse of 100 ms duration was used.
This yielded an approximate linear relationship between U and kg of the form kg = a4U + aS (3) where a4 = -25.8~07 and a5 = 181.778 for the above conditions.
The above then achieves the calibration of the sensor for kg. The linear approximation holds over enough of a span to provide accurate measurements.
Similar relations may be derived under other measurement conditions including additional pressure correction terms.
Further details related to determinng the coefficients for the algorithms to compute cp are described next. This determination requires that the measuring system be calibrated first, which consists of determining the coefficients al, a2, and a3, of the alogirthm to then computer cp.
Assuming a two-dimensional model for heat transfer in the microbridge, see Figures 7a-7c, the measured sensor temperature response may be described with reference to the following processes (at zero gas flow):
l) Heat release by the heater element film.
2) Temperature build up in the heater element material (FeNi or Pt) and surrounding support material (insulator Si3N4), i.e. within the bridge material.
3) Conduction towards the sensor via a) the bridge material, and b) the fluid phase surrounding the bridge.
4) Temperature build up in the sensor material (as in heater material in item 2 above), and in the gas surrounding it by the heat arriving via the above processes.
5) Achieving a steady-state distribution of temperature.
6) The revenue process to steps 1-5 during the start of the heater off-period.
Further assuming, for the sake of simplicity, that the specific heats of the involved gaseous and solid materials do not depend on temperature, we can approximately describe the above processes by the following expressions (see Table I above for symbol explanation) using the same process numbering as above:
1) Q = V2/(Ro(l +a (Th-To)) for small temperature rises.
2) The heater temperature results from balancing the heat input and output rates: Th-To =
Q/(kSAs/Ls + kgAg/Lg) with Q in watts;
the temperature Th is established in a time that is short compared to the time it takes to reach the sensor if the sensor is not identical to the heater, as in configurations 7(b) and 7(c).
3) In a truly one-dimensional case most of 50% of the released power Q eventually arrives at the sensor, since it only has two ways to go (+x and -x directions). In a two- (or even three-) dimensional case a major part of Q gets dissipated in the y and ' .
z directions, so that only a fraction, Qc~ is conducted to the sensor, with a corresponding drop of the original temperature, Th, down to an intermediate temperature Tm. The sensor then experiences an energy rate arrival of Qc = (Tm~TO) (ksAs/Ls + kgAg/Lg) (4) 4) The sensor temperature rise rate is governed by the lo specific heat of the gas surrounding the sensor and the closely coupled material of the sensor itself so that:
Qc = (dT/dt) cpsVs + (dT/dt)cpgVg (5) The quantity measured and plotted in Figures 14, 15 and 16, is the time (dt) needed to raise the sensor temperature by an increment (dT) which is chosen by the two or more sensor resistance value markers corresponding to T1 and T2.
It is readily apparent from equation (5) that cpg could be determined for an unknown gas if the various quantities entering in Eqs. (4) and (5) were either known or measurable. It has been found, however, that even if only dt, dT, To~ P and kg are conveniently measurable, the other quantities may be determined by calibration. This can be done according to an invention as follows:
For calibration, gases of known composition (preferably but not necessarily pure) and therefore of known specific heat and thermal conductivity at the used pressure and temperature (both also measured), are brought in contact with the sensor. The effect of the pulsed heat releases is recorded in terms of the lapsed time, t2-tl, as has been described. After noting results for various gases, pressures, heater temperatures and/or heating/cooling periods, with pulses of constant temperature, voltage, current or power, the recorded time and condition data are entered into an array of data ports which can be used for automatic or computerized data processing or other number crunching techniques.
The process can be illustrated with the help of equations (4) and (5), by way of example, without excluding other, similar approaches likely to occur to one skilled in numerical analysis. With this in mind, the following ports receive data or input for various gases, pressures (and temperatures):
Ports: Y Xl X2 Inputs: CpgP/PO (t2~tl)kg t2-tl . ~Y' .
Known and available multiple linear regression analysis (MLRA, see Figure 10) program can determine the linear coefficients al, a2, and a3 (e.g., by matrix inversion), which, together with the above input data, forms the calibrated expression derived from equations (4) and (5) to compute specific heat, cp:
cpg P/PO = a1(t2-tl)kg + a2(t2-tl) a3 (6) The determined (calibration)coefficients, of course, represent the lumped factors of several sensor properties or conditions from equations (6) and (7):
al=(Tm~To)(Ag/Lg)/(VgdT), a2 = (Tm-To)(Ag/Ls)/(vgdT)k a3 = cpsv5/vg In order to minimize differences in Tm at the sensor location, the most advantageous operation from among constant temperature, voltage, current or power is chosen. The above method is demonstrated on the basis of 1) constant voltage pulses, which result in quasi square wave heat pulses released by the heater, and 2) changes in gas type (CH4, C2H6, air and 2) and pressure; the chosen configuration was 7(b).
Figure 14 shows the result of storing and plotting the dt = t2-tl and pressure data for each of the gases used, for which the cp and k values can be obtained from the open literature. This relation is linearized by applying the least squares method in a multiple linear regression analysis to achieve the best fit line. After entering these data into the above ports Y, Xl and X2, the regression analysis program performed. The obtained result was, for a configuration as in Figure 7(b):
al = -16509, a2 = 3.5184 and a3 = .005392 (7a) Proof that the above calibration coefficients are valid is provided by Figure 15, for example, in which these coefficients have been used to generate the shown lines for CH4, C2H6, air and 2 As shown, the lines indeed connect and agree with all experimental points. Additional lines have been plotted with the cp and k data of the literature for other gases as well.
The final step in using this calibration method involves known means to store, write or burn in the obtained, tailored values of al, a2 and a3 for the individual microbridge, which may be a*Honeywell *Trade-mark 1 33662 ~
MICR0-SWITCH Model No. AWM-2100V, into the memory linked to it. The microsensor is then ready for use to measure the specific heat of unknown gases, provided that P and k be known at the time of measurement.
Figure 10 depicts a schematic block diagram of a device for measuring cp and k. The system includes the signal processing circuitry indicated by 170, a multiple linear regression analysis (MLRA) unit 171 for deriving the known equation constants for the particular microbridge configuration and circuitry used, i.e., a - an, a data bank 72 for storing calibration cp and k data and an output interface unit 173.
With respect to the embodiment of Figure 10, prior to use, field recalibration may be accomplished simply by entering the P, cp and k values of the test gas into the data bank. If P cannot be measured independently of the sensor already in the subject system its errors can be incorporated as a correction in the cp and k recalibration. The measured values of U
and dt are then used as in the measurement mode to determine sensor values of k and cp. If they disagree from the entered values the constants a3 and a5 may be modified to fit the entered or book values.
This approach may be a practical one for field use, but it should be checked by using a second test *Trade-mark 29 `~ 1 33662 1 gas. If that agrees, the recalibration may be completed. If not, a complete calibration of all al-aS coefficients should be made.
It should be mentioned that in all of the above discussion the influence of temperature was not mentioned for the sake of simplicity. It is well known, however, that temperature does influence both cp and k but can be addressed, if necessary, in one of the following ways:
1) Controlled, (expensive and energy consuming) or 2) Compensated by special temperature-sensitive elements in the analog part of the circuit, or 3) Entered into the sensor algorithm as an additional parameter, which is sensed, e.g., by monitoring one of the many available temperature dependent resistors on the sensor. This is the preferred approach for sensing systems requiring maximum accuracy.
With respect to use of the instrument of Figure lO, the U and dt = t2-tl (and P) signals obtained for an unknown gas are processed as follows in this mode:
t 33662 1 1) Computation of k from expression (3) using the coefficients a4 and a5 which have been stored in (or burned into) the sensor's memory after calibration, and 2) Computation of cp from expression (6).
It should also be noted that a pressure signal is also needed as a basic ingredient since cp is used here in relation to a volume of gas as opposed to k which is largely pressure independent if the sensor is used at or above atmospheric pressure, at which the gas mean free path is small compared to the characteristic dimensions of the involved sensor.
The graphical presentation of Figure 16 depicts heating time in milliseconds versus pressure and gas type and specifically showing curves for methane, ethane, air and oxygen. The sensing configuration of Fibure 7(c) was used. In this example, the pulse height was 1.75 volts with a pulse width of 100 ms. and the heater and sensor resistance each being about 2000 ohms. Figure 17 depicts a cooling curve for the same configuration as Figure 16. Conditions were the same except that the pulse height was 4.0 volts.
t'-` `i ' .
t 33662 1 of course, the output of the device can be in any desired form including analog or digital signals, printed records, etc., after the value is obtained.
Further assuming, for the sake of simplicity, that the specific heats of the involved gaseous and solid materials do not depend on temperature, we can approximately describe the above processes by the following expressions (see Table I above for symbol explanation) using the same process numbering as above:
1) Q = V2/(Ro(l +a (Th-To)) for small temperature rises.
2) The heater temperature results from balancing the heat input and output rates: Th-To =
Q/(kSAs/Ls + kgAg/Lg) with Q in watts;
the temperature Th is established in a time that is short compared to the time it takes to reach the sensor if the sensor is not identical to the heater, as in configurations 7(b) and 7(c).
3) In a truly one-dimensional case most of 50% of the released power Q eventually arrives at the sensor, since it only has two ways to go (+x and -x directions). In a two- (or even three-) dimensional case a major part of Q gets dissipated in the y and ' .
z directions, so that only a fraction, Qc~ is conducted to the sensor, with a corresponding drop of the original temperature, Th, down to an intermediate temperature Tm. The sensor then experiences an energy rate arrival of Qc = (Tm~TO) (ksAs/Ls + kgAg/Lg) (4) 4) The sensor temperature rise rate is governed by the lo specific heat of the gas surrounding the sensor and the closely coupled material of the sensor itself so that:
Qc = (dT/dt) cpsVs + (dT/dt)cpgVg (5) The quantity measured and plotted in Figures 14, 15 and 16, is the time (dt) needed to raise the sensor temperature by an increment (dT) which is chosen by the two or more sensor resistance value markers corresponding to T1 and T2.
It is readily apparent from equation (5) that cpg could be determined for an unknown gas if the various quantities entering in Eqs. (4) and (5) were either known or measurable. It has been found, however, that even if only dt, dT, To~ P and kg are conveniently measurable, the other quantities may be determined by calibration. This can be done according to an invention as follows:
For calibration, gases of known composition (preferably but not necessarily pure) and therefore of known specific heat and thermal conductivity at the used pressure and temperature (both also measured), are brought in contact with the sensor. The effect of the pulsed heat releases is recorded in terms of the lapsed time, t2-tl, as has been described. After noting results for various gases, pressures, heater temperatures and/or heating/cooling periods, with pulses of constant temperature, voltage, current or power, the recorded time and condition data are entered into an array of data ports which can be used for automatic or computerized data processing or other number crunching techniques.
The process can be illustrated with the help of equations (4) and (5), by way of example, without excluding other, similar approaches likely to occur to one skilled in numerical analysis. With this in mind, the following ports receive data or input for various gases, pressures (and temperatures):
Ports: Y Xl X2 Inputs: CpgP/PO (t2~tl)kg t2-tl . ~Y' .
Known and available multiple linear regression analysis (MLRA, see Figure 10) program can determine the linear coefficients al, a2, and a3 (e.g., by matrix inversion), which, together with the above input data, forms the calibrated expression derived from equations (4) and (5) to compute specific heat, cp:
cpg P/PO = a1(t2-tl)kg + a2(t2-tl) a3 (6) The determined (calibration)coefficients, of course, represent the lumped factors of several sensor properties or conditions from equations (6) and (7):
al=(Tm~To)(Ag/Lg)/(VgdT), a2 = (Tm-To)(Ag/Ls)/(vgdT)k a3 = cpsv5/vg In order to minimize differences in Tm at the sensor location, the most advantageous operation from among constant temperature, voltage, current or power is chosen. The above method is demonstrated on the basis of 1) constant voltage pulses, which result in quasi square wave heat pulses released by the heater, and 2) changes in gas type (CH4, C2H6, air and 2) and pressure; the chosen configuration was 7(b).
Figure 14 shows the result of storing and plotting the dt = t2-tl and pressure data for each of the gases used, for which the cp and k values can be obtained from the open literature. This relation is linearized by applying the least squares method in a multiple linear regression analysis to achieve the best fit line. After entering these data into the above ports Y, Xl and X2, the regression analysis program performed. The obtained result was, for a configuration as in Figure 7(b):
al = -16509, a2 = 3.5184 and a3 = .005392 (7a) Proof that the above calibration coefficients are valid is provided by Figure 15, for example, in which these coefficients have been used to generate the shown lines for CH4, C2H6, air and 2 As shown, the lines indeed connect and agree with all experimental points. Additional lines have been plotted with the cp and k data of the literature for other gases as well.
The final step in using this calibration method involves known means to store, write or burn in the obtained, tailored values of al, a2 and a3 for the individual microbridge, which may be a*Honeywell *Trade-mark 1 33662 ~
MICR0-SWITCH Model No. AWM-2100V, into the memory linked to it. The microsensor is then ready for use to measure the specific heat of unknown gases, provided that P and k be known at the time of measurement.
Figure 10 depicts a schematic block diagram of a device for measuring cp and k. The system includes the signal processing circuitry indicated by 170, a multiple linear regression analysis (MLRA) unit 171 for deriving the known equation constants for the particular microbridge configuration and circuitry used, i.e., a - an, a data bank 72 for storing calibration cp and k data and an output interface unit 173.
With respect to the embodiment of Figure 10, prior to use, field recalibration may be accomplished simply by entering the P, cp and k values of the test gas into the data bank. If P cannot be measured independently of the sensor already in the subject system its errors can be incorporated as a correction in the cp and k recalibration. The measured values of U
and dt are then used as in the measurement mode to determine sensor values of k and cp. If they disagree from the entered values the constants a3 and a5 may be modified to fit the entered or book values.
This approach may be a practical one for field use, but it should be checked by using a second test *Trade-mark 29 `~ 1 33662 1 gas. If that agrees, the recalibration may be completed. If not, a complete calibration of all al-aS coefficients should be made.
It should be mentioned that in all of the above discussion the influence of temperature was not mentioned for the sake of simplicity. It is well known, however, that temperature does influence both cp and k but can be addressed, if necessary, in one of the following ways:
1) Controlled, (expensive and energy consuming) or 2) Compensated by special temperature-sensitive elements in the analog part of the circuit, or 3) Entered into the sensor algorithm as an additional parameter, which is sensed, e.g., by monitoring one of the many available temperature dependent resistors on the sensor. This is the preferred approach for sensing systems requiring maximum accuracy.
With respect to use of the instrument of Figure lO, the U and dt = t2-tl (and P) signals obtained for an unknown gas are processed as follows in this mode:
t 33662 1 1) Computation of k from expression (3) using the coefficients a4 and a5 which have been stored in (or burned into) the sensor's memory after calibration, and 2) Computation of cp from expression (6).
It should also be noted that a pressure signal is also needed as a basic ingredient since cp is used here in relation to a volume of gas as opposed to k which is largely pressure independent if the sensor is used at or above atmospheric pressure, at which the gas mean free path is small compared to the characteristic dimensions of the involved sensor.
The graphical presentation of Figure 16 depicts heating time in milliseconds versus pressure and gas type and specifically showing curves for methane, ethane, air and oxygen. The sensing configuration of Fibure 7(c) was used. In this example, the pulse height was 1.75 volts with a pulse width of 100 ms. and the heater and sensor resistance each being about 2000 ohms. Figure 17 depicts a cooling curve for the same configuration as Figure 16. Conditions were the same except that the pulse height was 4.0 volts.
t'-` `i ' .
t 33662 1 of course, the output of the device can be in any desired form including analog or digital signals, printed records, etc., after the value is obtained.
Claims (28)
1. Apparatus for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising:
heater means;
thermal sensor means in proximate position to said heater means and in thermal communication therewith through the fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature dependent output;
adjustable energizing means connected to said heater means for energizing said heater means on a pulsed time-variable basis in a manner to induce both transient and substantially steady-state elevated temperature condition intervals in said thermal sensor means;
first output means for providing first output signal indicative of the temperature of said thermal sensor means;
means for determining the rate of change of temperature of said temperature sensor during a transient temperature interval based on time variation of said first output signal;
means for determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the first output signal at steady-state elevated sensor temperature; and means for determining cp, of the fluid of interest based on k and the rate of change of the first output during a transient temperature condition.
heater means;
thermal sensor means in proximate position to said heater means and in thermal communication therewith through the fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature dependent output;
adjustable energizing means connected to said heater means for energizing said heater means on a pulsed time-variable basis in a manner to induce both transient and substantially steady-state elevated temperature condition intervals in said thermal sensor means;
first output means for providing first output signal indicative of the temperature of said thermal sensor means;
means for determining the rate of change of temperature of said temperature sensor during a transient temperature interval based on time variation of said first output signal;
means for determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the first output signal at steady-state elevated sensor temperature; and means for determining cp, of the fluid of interest based on k and the rate of change of the first output during a transient temperature condition.
2. Apparatus for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a gaseous fluid of interest, comprising:
a microbridge system including a thin film resistive heater portion and a thin film resistive sensor portion in juxtaposed spaced relation, said heater and said sensor portions each having terminals, said system further being positioned in direct communication with the fluid of interest, said resistive heater thereby being thermally coupled to said sensor via said fluid of interest;
adjustable electrical pulse producing means connected in energizing relation to said heater terminals for providing an energy input to the heater of a level and duration such that both intervals of transient and substantially steady-state elevated temperature conditions are induced in the sensor means via the fluid of interest;
first output means for providing an electrical potential output signal indicative of the temperature of said thermal sensor means;
means for determining the rate of change of temperature of said thermal sensor during a transient temperature interval based on a time interval between selected temperatures indicated by said first output signal;
means for determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at steady-state elevated sensor temperature; and means for determining cp of the fluid of interest based on k and the rate of change of the sensor output signal during a transient temperature interval.
a microbridge system including a thin film resistive heater portion and a thin film resistive sensor portion in juxtaposed spaced relation, said heater and said sensor portions each having terminals, said system further being positioned in direct communication with the fluid of interest, said resistive heater thereby being thermally coupled to said sensor via said fluid of interest;
adjustable electrical pulse producing means connected in energizing relation to said heater terminals for providing an energy input to the heater of a level and duration such that both intervals of transient and substantially steady-state elevated temperature conditions are induced in the sensor means via the fluid of interest;
first output means for providing an electrical potential output signal indicative of the temperature of said thermal sensor means;
means for determining the rate of change of temperature of said thermal sensor during a transient temperature interval based on a time interval between selected temperatures indicated by said first output signal;
means for determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at steady-state elevated sensor temperature; and means for determining cp of the fluid of interest based on k and the rate of change of the sensor output signal during a transient temperature interval.
3. The apparatus of claim 1 further comprising second output means for providing output signals indicative of k and cp of the fluid of interest.
4. The apparatus of claim 2 further comprising second output means for providing output signals indicative of k and cp of the fluid of interest.
5. The apparatus of claim 2 wherein said resistive heater and resistive sensor portions are the same.
6. The apparatus of claim 2 wherein said microbridge resistive heater and resistive sensor portions comprise a sensor-heater-gap-heater-sensor configuration.
7. The apparatus of claim 2 wherein said microbridge resistive heater and resistive sensor portions comprise a heater-gap-sensor configuration.
8. The apparatus of claim 2 wherein said resistive heater and resistive sensor means are provided with an outer insulating layer to reduce heat flow through solid media.
9. The apparatus of claim 2 wherein said first output means includes a Wheatstone bridge which includes said thermal sensor.
10. The apparatus of claim 2 wherein said means for determining the rate of change of temperature of said sensor means further comprises counting means for measuring said time interval required for said sensor temperature to rise or fall between two or more known temperature values represented by known values of said first output.
11. The apparatus of claim 10 including means for varying said temperature values.
12. A method for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of:
providing proximately positioned heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said gaseous fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature sensitive output;
providing an energy input pulse to the heater means of a level such that an interval of transient temperature change is correspondingly produced in the sensor means;
providing an energy input to the heater means of a duration such than an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature is correspondingly produced in the sensor means;
obtaining a sensor output related to the elevated temperature of the sensor at said steady-state temperature;
determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature;
determining the rate of change of sensor output during a portion of said transient temperature change in the sensor; and determining cp of the fluid of interest based upon the rate of change of sensor output during said interval of transient temperature change and k.
providing proximately positioned heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said gaseous fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature sensitive output;
providing an energy input pulse to the heater means of a level such that an interval of transient temperature change is correspondingly produced in the sensor means;
providing an energy input to the heater means of a duration such than an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature is correspondingly produced in the sensor means;
obtaining a sensor output related to the elevated temperature of the sensor at said steady-state temperature;
determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature;
determining the rate of change of sensor output during a portion of said transient temperature change in the sensor; and determining cp of the fluid of interest based upon the rate of change of sensor output during said interval of transient temperature change and k.
13. The method of claim 12 wherein the heater and sensor means are electrical resistance elements and the input to the heater is in the form of an electric pulse of elevated voltage level and known duration.
14. The method of claim 12 where the fluid is gas.
15. A method for determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of:
providing proximately positioned microbridge thin film electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature sensitive electrical output signal;
providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a level such that the sensing means experiences an interval of transient temperature change and of a duration such that the sensing means experiences an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature;
obtaining a sensor output related to the sensor temperature at said steady-state elevated temperature;
determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the electrical sensor output signal at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature;
obtaining an output related to the rate of change of temperature of the sensor during said transient temperature change; and determining cp of the gas of interest based on the rate of change of sensor output during said transient temperature change in said sensor and k.
providing proximately positioned microbridge thin film electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said sensor means being one having a temperature sensitive electrical output signal;
providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a level such that the sensing means experiences an interval of transient temperature change and of a duration such that the sensing means experiences an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature;
obtaining a sensor output related to the sensor temperature at said steady-state elevated temperature;
determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the electrical sensor output signal at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature;
obtaining an output related to the rate of change of temperature of the sensor during said transient temperature change; and determining cp of the gas of interest based on the rate of change of sensor output during said transient temperature change in said sensor and k.
16. The method of claim 15 wherein cp is determined with respect to an upward transient temperature change in the sensor.
17. The method of claim 15 wherein cp is determined with respect to a downward transient temperature change in the sensor.
18. The method of claim 15 where the fluid is a gas.
19. The method of claim 15 wherein said output related to the rate of change of temperature of the sensor is obtained by the step of measuring the time interval for the sensor temperature to change between two known temperatures.
20. The method of claim 15 comprising the step of adjusting the two known temperatures used for determining the rate of change of temperature of said thermal sensor to produce the most accurate results for a given fluid of interest.
21. A method for determining thermal conductivity, k, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of:
providing proximately positioned microbridge electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said thermal sensor having a temperature sensitive output signal;
providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a known level and of a known duration such that the thermal sensor means achieves an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature;
obtaining a sensor output signal related to the sensor temperature at said elevated steady-state temperature; and determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature substantially approximated by k = a4U + a5 where U is the sensor output and a4 and a5 are constants.
providing proximately positioned microbridge electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said thermal sensor having a temperature sensitive output signal;
providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a known level and of a known duration such that the thermal sensor means achieves an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature;
obtaining a sensor output signal related to the sensor temperature at said elevated steady-state temperature; and determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature substantially approximated by k = a4U + a5 where U is the sensor output and a4 and a5 are constants.
22. The method of claim 21 wherein the constants a4 and a5 are determined based on a known value of k for one or more fluids.
23. The method of claim 21 where the fluid is a gas.
24. A method of determining thermal conductivity, k, and specific heat, cp, of a fluid of interest comprising the steps of:
providing proximately positioned microbridge electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said thermal sensor having a temperature sensitive output signal;
providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a known level and of a known duration such that the thermal sensor means achieves an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature;
obtaining a sensor output signal related to the sensor temperature at said elevated steady-state temperature;
determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the thermal sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature substantially approximated by k = a4U + a5 where U is the sensor output and a4 and a5 are constants;
obtaining an output indicative of the rate of change of temperature of the thermal sensor means by measuring the time interval for the thermal sensor temperature to change between two known temperatures; and determining cp of the fluid of interest based on the relation cpP/Po=a1(t2-t1)k+a2(t2-t1)-a3 where a1, a2 and a3 are constants P=pressure (psia) Po=reference pressure (psia) (t2-t1)=measured time span for the temperature of the thermal sensor to sensor to change between known temperatures.
providing proximately positioned microbridge electrical resistance heater and thermal sensor means coupled by said fluid of interest, said thermal sensor having a temperature sensitive output signal;
providing an electrical energy input pulse to the heater means of a known level and of a known duration such that the thermal sensor means achieves an interval of substantially steady-state elevated temperature;
obtaining a sensor output signal related to the sensor temperature at said elevated steady-state temperature;
determining k of the fluid of interest based upon the thermal sensor output at said steady-state elevated sensor temperature substantially approximated by k = a4U + a5 where U is the sensor output and a4 and a5 are constants;
obtaining an output indicative of the rate of change of temperature of the thermal sensor means by measuring the time interval for the thermal sensor temperature to change between two known temperatures; and determining cp of the fluid of interest based on the relation cpP/Po=a1(t2-t1)k+a2(t2-t1)-a3 where a1, a2 and a3 are constants P=pressure (psia) Po=reference pressure (psia) (t2-t1)=measured time span for the temperature of the thermal sensor to sensor to change between known temperatures.
25. The method of claim 24 wherein cp is determined with respect to an upward transient temperature change in the sensor.
26. The method of claim 24 wherein cp is determined with respect to a downward transient temperature change in the sensor.
27. The method of claim 24 comprising the step of adjusting the two known temperatures used for determining the rate of change of temperature of said thermal sensor to produce the most accurate results for a given fluid of interest.
28. The method of claim 24 where the fluid is a gas.
Applications Claiming Priority (2)
| Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
|---|---|---|---|
| US07/210,892 US4944035A (en) | 1988-06-24 | 1988-06-24 | Measurement of thermal conductivity and specific heat |
| US07/210,892 | 1988-06-24 |
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| Publication Number | Publication Date |
|---|---|
| CA1336621C true CA1336621C (en) | 1995-08-08 |
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ID=22784724
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| Application Number | Title | Priority Date | Filing Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| CA000603302A Expired - Fee Related CA1336621C (en) | 1988-06-24 | 1989-06-20 | Measurement of thermal conductivity and specific heat |
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| Country | Link |
|---|---|
| US (1) | US4944035A (en) |
| EP (1) | EP0348245B1 (en) |
| JP (1) | JP2797198B2 (en) |
| AT (1) | ATE143494T1 (en) |
| CA (1) | CA1336621C (en) |
| DE (1) | DE68927242T2 (en) |
| DK (1) | DK312389A (en) |
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| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| US5163754A (en) * | 1989-08-08 | 1992-11-17 | The United States Of America As Represented By The United States Department Of Energy | Isolated thermocouple amplifier system for stirred fixed-bed gasifier |
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| DE68927242D1 (en) | 1996-10-31 |
| US4944035A (en) | 1990-07-24 |
| EP0348245A2 (en) | 1989-12-27 |
| JP2797198B2 (en) | 1998-09-17 |
| EP0348245A3 (en) | 1990-10-31 |
| JPH03191852A (en) | 1991-08-21 |
| EP0348245B1 (en) | 1996-09-25 |
| DE68927242T2 (en) | 1997-03-06 |
| DK312389D0 (en) | 1989-06-23 |
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