US20030124421A1

US20030124421A1 - Non-aqueous electrochemical cells

Info

Publication number: US20030124421A1
Application number: US10/361,945
Authority: US
Inventors: Nikolai Issaev; Michael Pozin
Original assignee: Gillette Co LLC
Current assignee: Gillette Co LLC
Priority date: 2001-12-14
Filing date: 2003-02-10
Publication date: 2003-07-03
Also published as: EP1527488B2; CN1320674C; US20080261110A1; AU2002360562A1; AR038015A1; EP1527488A2; JP4623965B2; EP1527488B1; CN1630959A; JP2005538498A; BR0214896A; US7927739B2; EP2204869B1; WO2003052845A2; EP2204869A2; US20050089760A1; EP2204869A3; WO2003052845A3; AU2002360562A8; US20120096708A1

Abstract

An electrochemical secondary cell is disclosed. The cell includes a cathode, an anode, a cathode current collector including stainless steel, and an electrolyte containing a perchlorate salt and a second salt.

Description

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part application of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 10/022,289, filed on Dec. 14, 2001, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.[0001]

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to non-aqueous electrochemical cells.

BACKGROUND

Batteries are commonly used electrical energy sources. A battery contains a negative electrode, typically called the anode, and a positive electrode, typically called the cathode. The anode contains an active material that can be oxidized; the cathode contains or consumes an active material that can be reduced. The anode active material is capable of reducing the cathode active material.

When a battery is used as an electrical energy source in a device, electrical contact is made to the anode and the cathode, allowing electrons to flow through the device and permitting the respective oxidation and reduction reactions to occur to provide electrical power. An electrolyte in contact with the anode and the cathode contains ions that flow through the separator between the electrodes to maintain charge balance throughout the battery during discharge.

In certain embodiments, the battery includes a metal as a construction material. For example, the metal can be used to construct a battery container (or can) or a current collector for the positive electrode. Sometimes, the metal can corrode because the electrode potential of the metal is lower than the normal operating potential of the positive electrode of the battery. When the metal is coupled with different metals in the environment of an electrochemical cell, the metal can also be susceptible to corrosion. Corrosion can increase the internal impedance of a cell, leading to capacity loss and to a decrease in specific energy. Corrosion can also limit the choice of metals available as a construction material.

SUMMARY

The invention relates to an electrochemical cell that includes parts made from metals, such as steels (e.g., stainless steels), aluminum, or an aluminum-based alloy; these parts contact the electrolyte of the cell. The cell also includes an additive to suppress corrosion of the parts.

In one aspect, the invention features an electrochemical cell, including a cathode, an anode, a cathode current collector comprising steel, and an electrolyte comprising a perchlorate salt and a second salt, wherein the electrochemical cell is a secondary cell. The cathode current collector can include a stainless steel.

In another aspect, the invention features an electrochemical cell including a cathode, an anode, a cathode current collector including steel, and an electrolyte containing a perchlorate salt and a second salt, wherein the electrochemical cell is a primary cell.

In another aspect, the invention features an electrochemical cell including a cathode, an anode, an electrolyte comprising a perchlorate salt, a first portion comprising a steel, and a second portion in electrical contact with the first portion, wherein the first and second portions are in electrical contact with the cathode.

The first portion can include a stainless steel, such as a 200 series stainless steel, a 300 series stainless steel, a 400 series stainless steel, or a cold roll steel. The first portion can be defined by a cathode current collector, a container of the cell, a tab, a rivet, or a contact plate. The first portion can have at least one dimension greater than 0.5 mm, e.g., greater than 1 mm, or greater than 2 mm. The first and second portions can physically contact each other.

The second portion can include a steel, e.g., a stainless steel. The second portion can include a composition different from or the same as a composition of the first portion.

The cell can be a primary cell or a secondary cell. Primary electrochemical cells are meant to be discharged to exhaustion only once, and then discarded. Primary cells are not meant to be recharged. Secondary cells can be recharged for many times, e.g., more than fifty times, more than a hundred times, or more.

In another aspect, the invention features a method of reducing corrosion. The method includes adding a perchlorate salt to a non-aqueous solution. The method can further include placing the solution, a cathode, an anode, and a member including steel into an electrochemical cell.

The member can include a stainless steel, such as a 200 series stainless steel, a 300 series stainless steel, a 400 series stainless steel, or a cold roll steel.

Embodiments of the aspects of the invention can include one or more of the following features.

The steel can be a 200 series stainless steel, a 300 series stainless steel, a 400 series stainless steel, and a cold roll steel.

The perchlorate salt can include LiClO ₄. The perchlorate salt can include Ca(ClO₄)₂, Ba(ClO₄)₂, Al(ClO₄)₃, Mg(ClO₄)₂, KClO₄, tetrabutylammonium perchlorate, or tetraethylammonium perchlorate.

The electrolyte can include between about 300 ppm and about 50,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt, e.g., about 300 ppm to about 40,000 ppm, about 300 ppm to about 30,000 ppm, about 300 ppm to about 20,000 ppm, about 300 ppm to about 10,000 ppm, or about 300 ppm to about 5,000 ppm.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other aspects, features, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a sectional view of a nonaqueous electrochemical cell. [0020]
FIG. 2 is a graph showing current density vs. potential of the aluminum in an electrode exposed to LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing different amounts of LiClO[0021] ₄.
FIG. 3 is a graph showing current density vs. time of the aluminum in an electrode exposed to LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing different amounts of LiClO[0022] ₄.
FIG. 4 is a graph showing current density vs. time of the aluminum in an electrode exposed to a LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolyte containing LiClO[0023] ₄.
FIG. 5 is a graph showing current density vs. potential of the aluminum in an electrode exposed to LiTFS+LiTFSI, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing different amounts of LiClO[0024] ₄.
FIG. 6 is a graph showing current density vs. time of the aluminum in an electrode exposed to LiTFS+LiTFSI, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing different amounts of LiClO[0025] ₄.
FIG. 7 is a graph showing current density vs. potential of the aluminum in an electrode exposed to LiTFS+LiPF[0026] ₆, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing different amounts of LiClO₄.
FIG. 8 is a graph showing current density vs. time of the aluminum in an electrode exposed to LiTFS+LiPF[0027] ₆, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing different amounts of LiClO₄.
FIG. 9 is a graph showing current density vs. potential of the aluminum in an electrode exposed to a LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolyte containing different amounts of LiClO[0028] ₄and different amounts of Al(ClO₄)₃.
FIG. 10 is a graph showing current density vs. potential of the aluminum in an electrode exposed to a LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolyte containing different amounts of LiClO[0029] ₄and different amounts of Ba(ClO₄)₂.
FIG. 11 is a graph showing current density vs. potential of 304 stainless steel in an electrode exposed to LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing no LiClO[0030] ₄and an amount of LiClO₄.
FIG. 12 is a graph showing current density vs. time of 304 stainless steel in an electrode exposed to LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing no LiClO[0031] ₄and an amount of LiClO₄.
FIG. 13 is a graph showing current density vs. potential of 416 stainless steel in an electrode exposed to LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing different amounts of LiClO[0032] ₄.
FIG. 14 is a graph showing current density vs. time of 416 stainless steel in an electrode exposed to LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing different amounts of LiClO[0033] ₄.
FIG. 15 is a graph showing current density vs. time of 416 stainless steel in an electrode exposed to LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing an amount of LiClO[0034] ₄.
FIG. 16 is a graph a graph showing current density vs. time of cold roll steel in an electrode exposed to LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolytes containing different amounts of LiClO[0035] ₄.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Referring to FIG. 1, an [0036] electrochemical cell 10 includes an anode 12 in electrical contact with a negative lead 14, a cathode 16 in electrical contact with a positive lead 18, a separator 20 and an electrolytic solution. Anode 12, cathode 16, separator 20 and the electrolytic solution are contained within a case 22. The electrolytic solution includes a solvent system and a salt that is at least partially dissolved in the solvent system.
[0037] Cathode 16 includes an active cathode material, which is generally coated on the cathode current collector. The current collector is generally titanium, stainless steel, nickel, aluminum, or an aluminum alloy, e.g., aluminum foil. The active material can be, e.g., a metal oxide, halide, or chalcogenide; alternatively, the active material can be sulfur, an organosulfur polymer, or a conducting polymer. Specific examples include cobalt oxides, MnO₂, manganese spinels, V₂O₅, CoF₃, molybdenum-based materials such as MoS₂and MoO₃, FeS₂, SOCl₂, S, (C₆H₅N)_n, (S₃N₂)_n, where n is at least 2. The active material can also be a carbon monofluoride. An example is a compound having the formula CF_x, where x is 0.5 to 1.0, or higher. The active material can be mixed with a conductive material such as carbon and a binder such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). An example of a cathode is one that includes aluminum foil coated with MnO₂. The cathode can be prepared as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,279,972. Specific cathode materials are a function of, e.g., the type of cell such as primary or secondary.
[0038] Anode 12 can consist of an active anode material, usually in the form of an alkali metal, e.g., Li, Na, K, or an alkaline earth metal, e.g., Ca, Mg. The anode can also consist of alloys of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals or alloys of alkali metals and Al. The anode can be used with or without a substrate. The anode also can consist of an active anode material and a binder. In this case an active anode material can include tin-based materials, carbon-based materials, such as carbon, graphite, an acetylenic mesophase carbon, coke, a metal oxide and/or a lithiated metal oxide. The binder can be, for example, PTFE. The active anode material and binder can be mixed to form a paste which can be applied to the substrate of anode 12. Specific anode materials are a function of, e.g., the type of cell such as primary or secondary.
[0039] Separator 20 can be formed of any of the standard separator materials used in nonaqueous electrochemical cells. For example, separator 20 can be formed of polypropylene, (e.g., nonwoven polypropylene or microporous polypropylene), polyethylene, and/or a polysulfone.
The electrolyte can be in liquid, solid or gel (polymer) form. The electrolyte can contain an organic solvent such as propylene carbonate (PC), ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethoxyethane (DME), butylene carbonate (BC), dioxolane (DO), tetrahydrofuran (THF), acetonitrile (CH[0040] ₃CN), gamma-butyrolactone, diethyl carbonate (DEC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC) dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) methyl acetate (MA), methyl formiate (MF), sulfolane or combinations thereof. The electrolyte can alternatively contain an inorganic solvent such as SO₂or SOCl₂. The electrolyte also contains a lithium salt such as lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiTFS) or lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), or a combination thereof. Additional lithium salts that can be included are listed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,595,841, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, the electrolyte may contain LiPF₆; in other embodiments, the electrolyte is essentially free of LiPF₆.
In preferred embodiments, the electrolyte also contains a perchlorate salt, which inhibits corrosion in the cell. Examples of suitable salts include lithium, barium, calcium, aluminum, sodium, potassium, magnesium, copper, zinc, ammonium, tetrabutylammonium, and tetraethylammonium perchlorates. Generally, at least 300 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt is used; this ensures that there is enough salt to suppress corrosion. In addition, less than about 50,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt is generally used. If too much perchlorate salt is used, under certain conditions, the cell can be unsafe. In certain embodiments, greater than or equal to about 300 ppm, 500 ppm, 2,500 ppm, 5,000 ppm, 10,000 ppm, 15,000 ppm, 20,000 ppm, 25,000 ppm, 30,000 ppm, 35,000 ppm, 40,000 ppm, or 45,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt is used. Alternatively or in addition, less than or equal to about 50,000 ppm, 45,000 ppm, 40,000 ppm, 35,000 ppm, 30,000 ppm, 25,000 ppm, 20,000 ppm, 15,000 ppm, 10,000 ppm, 5,000 ppm, 2,500 ppm, or 500 ppm by weight of the perchlorate is used. An effective amount of perchlorate to reduce, e.g., inhibit, corrosion to a desired level in the cell can be determined experimentally, e.g., using cyclic voltammetry. [0041]
In some embodiments, [0042] cell 10 includes an electrolyte formed of a mixture of solvents having DME and PC, and a salt mixture of LiTFS and LiTFSI. The concentration of DME in the mixture of solvents can range from about 30% to about 85% by weight. The concentration of DME in the mixture of solvents can be equal to or greater than 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, or 80% by weight; and/or equal to or less than 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, or 35% by weight. The concentration of PC in the mixture of solvents can be equal to 100% minus the concentration of DME. For example, if the concentration of DME in the mixture of solvents is 75% by weight, then the concentration of PC in the mixture of solvents is 25% by weight. If the concentration of DME in the mixture of solvents is 50%-75% by weight, then the concentration of PC in the mixture of solvents is 25%-50% by weight.
For the LiTFS and LiTFSI salt mixture, the total concentration of salt in the mixture of solvents can range from about 0.4 M to about 1.2 M. The total concentration of LiTFS and LiTFSI in the mixture of solvents can be equal to or greater than 0.40 M, 0.45 M, 0.50 M, 0.55 M, 0.60 M, 0.65 M, 0.70 M, 0.75 M, 0.80 M, 0.85 M, 0.90 M, 0.95 M, 1.00 M, 1.05 M, 1.10 M, or 1.15 M; and/or equal to or less than 1.2 M, 1.15 M, 1.10 M, 1.05 M, 1.00 M, 0.95 M, 0.90 M, 0.85 M, 0.80 M, 0.75 M, 0.70 M, 0.65 M, 0.60 M, 0.55 M, 0.50 M, or 0.45 M. Of the total concentration of salt, the concentration of LiTFS in the mixture of solvents can be (in mole fraction) equal to or greater than 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100%; and/or equal to or less than 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, or 5%. The concentration of LiTFSI in the mixture of solvents can be equal to 100% minus the concentration of LiTFS in the mixture of solvents. For example, if the total concentration of salt in the mixture of solvents is 0.5 M, and the LiTFS concentration (in mole fraction) in the mixture of solvents is 90% (i.e., 0.45 M), then the LiTFSI concentration in the electrolyte mixture is 10% (i.e., 0.05 M). In embodiments, other types of salts can be added to the electrolyte. [0043]
Other materials can be added to the electrolyte mixture. For example, in certain embodiments, [0044] cell 10 includes an electrolyte formed of a mixture of solvents including EC, DME and PC, and a salt mixture of LiTFS and LiTFSI. The concentration of EC in the mixture of solvents can be between about 5% and 30% by weight. The concentration of EC in the mixture of solvents can be equal to or greater than 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or 25% by weight; and/or equal to or less than 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, or 10% by weight. The concentration of DME in the mixture of solvents can range from about 30% to about 85% by weight. The concentration of DME in the mixture of solvents can be equal to or greater than 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, or 80% by weight; and/or equal to or less than 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, or 35% by weight. The concentration of PC in the mixture of solvents can be equal to 100% minus the concentration of EC and DME. For example, if the concentration of EC in the mixture of solvents is 15% by weight, and the concentration of DME in the mixture of solvents is 60% by weight, then the concentration of PC in the mixture of solvents is 25% by weight. Examples of an EC:DME:PC solvent mixture are 14:62:24 and 10:75:15 percent by weight.
The LiTFS and LiTFSI concentrations in the electrolyte, e.g., 0.4-1.2 M, can be generally similar to those described herein. In embodiments, other types of salts can be added to the electrolyte. [0045]
To assemble the cell, [0046] separator 20 can be cut into pieces of a similar size as anode 12 and cathode 16 and placed therebetween as shown in FIG. 1. Anode 12, cathode 16, and separator 20 are then placed within case 22, which can be made of a metal such as nickel, nickel plated steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloy, or aluminum, or a plastic such as polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, polysulfone, ABS or a polyamide. Case 22 is then filled with the electrolytic solution and sealed. One end of case 22 is closed with a cap 24 and an annular insulating gasket 26 that can provide a gas-tight and fluid-tight seal. Positive lead 18, which can be made of aluminum, nickel, titanium, steel or stainless steel, connects cathode 16 to cap 24. Cap 24 may also be made of aluminum, nickel, titanium, steel or stainless steel. A safety valve 28 is disposed in the inner side of cap 24 and is configured to decrease the pressure within battery 10 when the pressure exceeds some predetermined value. Additional methods for assembling the cell are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,279,972; 4,401,735; and 4,526,846.
Other configurations of [0047] battery 10 can also be used, including, e.g., the coin cell configuration. The batteries can be of different voltages, e.g., 1.5V, 3.0V, or 4.0V.
The invention is further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims. [0048]

EXAMPLE 1

Al Corrosion in Different Electrolytes with Addition of LiClO[0049] ₄
Glass Cell Experimentation [0050]
An electrochemical glass cell was constructed having an Al working electrode, a Li reference electrode, and two Li auxiliary electrodes. The working electrode was fabricated from a 99.999% Al rod inserted into a Teflon sleeve to provide a planar electrode area of 0.33 cm[0051] ². The native oxide layer was removed by first polishing the planar working surface with 3 μm aluminum oxide paper under an argon atmosphere, followed by thorough rinsing of the Al electrode in electrolyte. All experiments were performed under an Ar atmosphere.
Cyclic Voltammetry [0052]
Corrosion current measurements were made according to a modified procedure generally described in X. Wang et al., [0053] Electrochemica Acta, vol. 45, pp. 2677-2684 (2000). The corrosion potential of Al was determined by continuous cyclic voltammetry. In each cycle, the potential was initially set to an open circuit potential, then anodically scanned to +4.5 V and reversed to an open circuit potential. A scan rate of 50 mV/s was selected, at which good reproducibility of the corrosion potential of aluminum was obtained. The corrosion potential of aluminum was defined as the potential at which the anodic current density reached 10⁻⁵A/cm²at the first cycle.
Chronoamperometry [0054]
Corrosion current measurements were made according to the procedure described in [0055] EP 0 852 072. The aluminum electrode was polarized at various potentials vs. a Li reference electrode while the current was recorded vs. time. Current vs. time measurements were taken during a 30-minute period. The area under current vs. time curve was used as a measure of the amount of aluminum corrosion occurring. The experiment also could be terminated in case the current density reached 3 mA/cm²before the 30-minute time period elapsed and no corrosion suppression occurred. Corrosion suppression occurred when the resulting current density was observed in the range of 10⁻⁶A/cm².
Referring to FIG. 2, cyclic voltammograms taken in the electrolyte containing LiTFS and DME:EC:PC showed significant shifts in the corrosion potential of the Al electrode. The addition of LiClO[0056] ₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential of aluminum in the positive direction, which indicates corrosion suppression.
Curves “a” and “a”′ in FIG. 2 show the corrosion potential of the aluminum in the electrolyte containing no LiClO[0057] ₄. The addition of 500 ppm of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential of the aluminum 150 mV in the positive direction (curves “b” and “b”′); the addition of 1000 ppm of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential 300 mV (curves “c” and “c”′); and the addition of 2500 ppm of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential 600 mV (curves “d” and “d”′). These results demonstrate that the addition of increasing amounts of LiClO₄to the electrolyte containing LiTFS salt and mixture of DME:EC:PC results in increasing degrees of corrosion protection of the aluminum electrode.
Referring to FIG. 3, curve “a” shows a potentiostatic dependence (chronoamperogram) of the aluminum electrode exposed to the electrolyte containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC with the addition of 500 ppm LiClO[0058] ₄; curve “b” shows the chronoamperogram taken in the same electrolyte with addition of 1000 ppm LiClO₄; curve “c” shows the chronoamperogram taken in the electrolyte containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC, and 2500 ppm LiClO₄. As shown in FIG. 3, at a LiClO₄concentration of 2500 ppm, the aluminum corrosion at +3.6 V (vs. a Li reference electrode) is effectively suppressed, and the corrosion current is less than 10⁻⁶A/cm²after 30 minutes of measurement.
Referring to FIG. 4, the electrochemical window of Al stability can be extended as high as +4.2 V (vs. a Li reference electrode) by increasing the concentration of LiClO[0059] ₄to 1% (10,000 ppm). At a LiClO₄concentration of 1%, aluminum corrosion is effectively suppressed at 4.2 V. The corrosion current after 30 minutes is 8-10 μA/cm², and the current continues to fall over time. The falling current indicates passivation of the Al surface. The increased level of the resulting current (10 μA/cm²vs. 1 μA/cm²after 30 minutes of experiment) is due to the increased background current at these potentials.
Referring to FIG. 5, curves “a” “a”′, and “a″” show the corrosion potential of an aluminum electrode subjected to an electrolyte containing a mixture of LiTFS and LiTFSI salts, DME:EC:PC, and no LiClO[0060] ₄. The addition of 500 ppm of LiClO₄to this electrolyte shifted the corrosion potential of the aluminum 150 mV in the positive direction (curves “b” and “b′”); the addition of 1000 ppm of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential 280 mV (curves “c” and “c′”); and the addition of 2500 ppm of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted potential 460 mV (curves “d” and “d′”). These results demonstrate that the addition of increasing amounts of LiClO₄to the electrolyte containing the mixture of LiTFS and LiTFSI salts and DME:EC:PC results in increasing degrees of corrosion protection of the aluminum electrode.
Referring to FIG. 6, curve “a” shows the chronoamperogram of the aluminum electrode exposed to the electrolyte containing a mixture of LiTFS and LiTFSI salts, DME:EC:PC, and 1000 ppm LiClO[0061] ₄; and curve “b” shows the chronoamperogram of the aluminum electrode exposed to the same electrolyte containing 2500 ppm LiClO₄. As shown in FIG. 5, at a LiClO₄concentration of 2500 ppm in LiTFS, LiTFSI, DME:EC:PC electrolyte, the aluminum corrosion at +3.6 V is effectively suppressed, and resulting corrosion current of the Al electrode is about 10⁻⁶A/cm²after 30 minutes.
Referring to FIG. 7, curve “a” shows the corrosion potential of the aluminum subjected to an electrolyte containing a mixture of LiTFS and LiPF[0062] ₆salts, DME:EC:PC, and no LiClO₄. The addition of 500 ppm of LiClO₄to this electrolyte shifted the corrosion potential of the aluminum 125 mV in the positive direction (curve “b”); the addition of 2500 ppm of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential 425 mV (curve “c”); and the addition of 5000 ppm of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential 635 mV (curve “d”). These results demonstrate that the addition of increasing amounts of LiClO₄to the electrolyte containing the mixture of LiTFS, LiPF₆salts, and DME:EC:PC results in increasing degrees of corrosion protection of the aluminum electrode.
Referring to FIG. 8, curve “a” shows a chronoamperogram of the aluminum electrode exposed to the electrolyte containing LiTFS, LiPF[0063] ₆, DME:EC:PC with no LiClO₄; curve “b” shows a chronoamperogram taken in the same electrolyte with 2500 ppm LiClO₄added; curve “c” shows a chronoamperogram taken in the electrolyte containing LiTFS, LiPF₆, DME:EC:PC, and 5000 ppm LiClO₄. As shown in FIG. 8, at a LiClO₄concentration of 5000 ppm, the aluminum corrosion at +3.6 V (vs. a Li reference electrode) is effectively suppressed, and the corrosion current is less than 10⁻⁶A/cm²after 30 minutes of measurement.

EXAMPLE 2

Al Corrosion in Electrolytes Containing LiTFS DME:EC:PC, with the Addition of Different Perchlorates [0064]
Electrochemical glass cells were constructed as described in Example 1. Cyclic voltammetry and chromoamperometry were performed as described in Example 1. [0065]
Referring to FIG. 9, curves “a”, “b”, and “c” show the corrosion potential of an aluminum electrode exposed to the electrolyte LiTFS, DME:EC:PC containing 0, 1000 and 2500 ppm of LiClO[0066] ₄, respectively. Curves “a′”, “b′,” and “c′” show the corrosion potential of an aluminum electrode exposed to the electrolyte LiTFS, DME:EC:PC containing 0, 1000 and 2500 ppm of Al(ClO₄)₃, respectively. These results demonstrate that the addition of Al(ClO₄)₃salt, like the addition of LiClO₄salt, suppressed the corrosion of Al.
Referring to FIG. 10, curves “a”, “b”, and “c” show the corrosion potential of an aluminum electrode exposed to the electrolyte LiTFS, DME:EC:PC containing 0, 1000 and 2500 ppm of LiClO[0067] ₄, respectively. Curves “a′”, “b′” and “c′” show the corrosion potential of an aluminum electrode exposed to the electrolyte LiTFS, DME:EC:PC containing 0, 1000 and 2500 ppm of Ba(ClO₄)₂, respectively. These results demonstrate that the addition of Ba(ClO₄)₂salt, like the addition of LiClO₄salt, suppressed the corrosion of Al.
The shifts in the corrosion potential that result from the addition of LiClO[0068] ₄, Al(ClO₄)₃, and Ba(ClO₄)₂to an electrolyte containing LiTFS and DME:EC:PC are summarized below in Table 1.

TABLE 1

Anodic shift of corrosion potential (mV)

Additive 0 ppm 1000 ppm 2500 ppm

Al(ClO₄)₃ 0 170 450

Ba(ClO₄)₂ 0 170 400

LiClO ₄ 0 300 600

EXAMPLE 3

Al Corrosion in Electrolyte Containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC, (Vial Storage Test) [0069]
The following test conditions were used: [0070]
Electrodes: EMD (electrochemically synthesized manganese dioxide) based cathodes applied on the Al current collector [0071]
Electrolyte (10 mL per sample): LiTFS, DME:EC:PC with and without addition of LiClO[0072] ₄salt
Aging conditions: 60° C. for 20 days [0073]
Direct determination of Al corrosion was performed in one of two ways: [0074]
Analytical determination of Al ions in the electrolyte after aging (ICP method) [0075]
Direct observation of the Al surface (optical microscopy) after aging [0076]

Measurements of Al corrosion were performed by measuring the Al ions in the electrolyte after aging of the EMD based cathodes with an Al current collector. Analytical results (ICP) are summarized in Table 2.

TABLE 2


		Al concentration
Sample	Electrolyte	after storage (ppm)

None	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC	1.94 ± 0.20
EMD based cathode on Al	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC	21.55 ± 1.58
current collector
EMD based cathode on Al	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC +	2.16 ± 0.18
current collector	2500 ppm LiClO₄

The level of Al ions in the electrolyte indicates the rate of Al corrosion. As shown above, the background level of Al ions in solution is about 2 ppm. As referred to herein, the corrosion of a metal is said to be suppressed when, after the test described above is performed, the concentration of metal ions in the electrolyte is less than about 3 ppm, which is just above the background level. [0078]
The Al concentration in the electrolyte without LiClO[0079] ₄addition is high (the range is 19.4-23 ppm). Thus, part of the Al substrate has dissolved (corroded) under the potential of the applied active cathode material.
On the other hand, the samples which were stored in the electrolytes with added LiClO[0080] ₄did not show any corrosion (the resulting Al concentration in the electrolyte is at the background level 1.9-2.3 ppm). These data confirm results of the electrochemical measurements in a glass cell: 2500 ppm of LiClO₄completely suppresses the corrosion of Al at the potential of the EMD cathode.
The analytical data were confirmed by the direct observation of Al surface after aging (under an optical microscope, at a magnification of 60X). The electrodes stored in the electrolyte without LiClO[0081] ₄exhibited substantial corrosion, as viewed under the optical microscope. The section stored in the electrolyte with added LiClO₄showed virtually no corrosion.

EXAMPLE 4

Al Current Collector Coupled with Other Metals, (Vial Storage Test) [0082]

The same cathodes on the Al substrate as described above were used in this experiment. In this case, the Al substrates were welded to stainless steel (SS) or nickel (Ni) tabs. A description of the samples and analytical results is presented in Table 3.

TABLE 3


		Ni	Al	Fe
Sample	Electrolyte	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)

None	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC	<1.0	<1.0	<1.0
Cathode (Al cur.	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC	<1.0	24.4	5.3
collector with
welded SS tab)
Cathode (Al cur.	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC	90.9	20.5	<1.0
collector with
welded Ni tab)
Cathode (Al cur.	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC +	<1.0	<1.0	<1.0
collector with	2500 ppm LiClO₄
welded SS tab)
Cathode (Al cur.	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC +	<1.0	<1.0	<1.0
collector with	2500 ppm LiClO₄
welded Ni tab)

The highest corrosion rate was observed on the sample welded to the SS tab and stored in the electrolyte without added LiClO[0084] ₄(the resulting solution contains the residue colored as a rust, and the SS tab is separated from the Al substrate). The presence of iron (5.3 ppm of Fe ions in the resulting electrolyte) indicates a high rate of SS corrosion as well as Al corrosion (24.4 ppm of the Al in the resulting electrolyte).
A high concentration of Ni (90.9 ppm) in the resulting electrolyte (Al current collector with welded Ni tab, electrolyte without LiClO[0085] ₄) indicates the severe corrosion of the Ni tab coupled with Al (the Al corroded as well, as indicated by the presence of 20.5 ppm Al).
On the other hand, the samples stored in the electrolytes with added LiClO[0086] ₄did not show any corrosion (the resulting Al, Ni, Fe concentrations in the electrolyte were at the background level of <1 ppm).

EXAMPLE 5

Al Corrosion in Electrolyte Containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC and 2500 ppm of LiClO[0087] ₄, (2/3A Cell Tests)
Cells were assembled with investigated parts and electrolytes according to the standard procedure with Al current foil applied as the cathode substrate. [0088]
The assembled cells (2/3A size) were stored 20 days at 60° C. Electrolyte removed from the cells after storage was submitted for ICP analysis. The electrolyte did not show any traces of Al, Fe, or Ni (the concentrations were at the background level). [0089]

EXAMPLE 6

Corrosion Tests Using Different Aluminum Alloys, (Vial Storage Test) [0090]
Two cathodes were prepared by coating aluminum foil substrates (1145 Al) with MnO[0091] ₂. Pieces of aluminum foil (3003 Al) were welded to the aluminum foil of each of the cathodes. One cathode was stored for 20 days at 60° C. over LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolyte containing 2500 ppm of LiClO₄. The second cathode was stored for 20 days at 60° C. over LiTFS, DME:EC:PC electrolyte containing no LiClO₄. After the 20-day period, the electrolytes were analyzed by ICP. The first electrolyte (2500 ppm LiClO₄in the electrolyte) contained less than 1 ppm Al, while the second electrolyte (no LiClO₄in the electrolyte) contained 18 ppm Al. These results indicate that the presence of LiClO₄can suppress corrosion when two different alloys of aluminum are in electrical contact in the presence of electrolyte.
Reduction of Corrosion of Steels [0092]
Addition of a perchlorate salt as described herein can also reduce (e.g., minimize or suppress) corrosion of steel, e.g., stainless steel, in a cell. Examples of steels include 300 series stainless steels (such as 304L or 316L stainless steel), 400 series stainless steels (such as 409, 416, 434, or 444 stainless steel), or cold roll steels (such as 1008 cold roll steel). Other types stainless steels, e.g., 200 series stainless steel, are possible. The steel can be included in one or more components of the cell in relatively pure form or combined with one or more other materials, such as a different stainless steel. Examples of a component of a cell include a cathode current collector, a case, a positive lead, or a cap. Accordingly, adding a perchlorate salt to the cell can reduce corrosion of the component(s). In some cases, the component(s) can include a couple, e.g., two materials in electrical contact with each other. The perchlorate salt can also reduce corrosion of couples of different materials (e.g., 316 and 416 stainless steel) and couples of the same material, because a connection portion (e.g., a weld) can have a different composition or structure than, e.g., two connected portions, due to melting and diffusion. The portions can be, for example, the cathode current collector, a tab, a rivet, the can, and/or a contact plate. As a result, in some embodiments, the cell can be operated more stably at relatively higher operating potentials, e.g., from about 3.6 V up to about 5.0 V. [0093]

EXAMPLE 7

Corrosion of Steel in an Electrolyte Containing LiTFS and DME:EC:PC [0094]
Glass Cell Experimentation [0095]
An electrochemical glass cell was constructed as described above but having a steel working electrode, which was fabricated from a rod of a selected steel. [0096]
Cyclic Voltammetry [0097]
Corrosion current measurements were performed as described above. The corrosion potential of steel was defined as the potential at which the anodic current density reached 10[0098] ⁻⁵(or 10⁻⁴) A/cm²at the first cycle of backscan.
Chronoamperometry [0099]
Corrosion current measurements were performed as described above. Corrosion suppression occurred when resulting current density was observed in the range of 10[0100] ⁻⁶A/cm²after 30 min. of polarization.
304L Stainless Steel: Referring to FIG. 11, cyclic voltammograms taken in an electrolyte containing LiTFS and DME:EC:PC showed significant shifts in corrosion potential of a 304 SS electrode. The addition of LiClO[0101] ₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential of 304 SS electrode in the positive direction, which indicates corrosion suppression.
Curves “a” and “a′” in FIG. 11 show the corrosion potential of the 304 SS electrode (intersection of cyclic voltammogram with 10[0102] ⁻⁴mA/cm²current density line) in the electrolyte containing no LiClO₄. The corrosion potential of 316L steel electrode is presented on curves “b” and “b′” as a base line. The addition of 2000 ppm of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential of the 304L electrode about 200 mV in the positive direction (curves “c” and “c′”). These results demonstrate that the addition of LiClO₄to the electrolyte containing LiTFS salt and mixture of DME:EC:PC results in increasing degrees of corrosion protection of the 304L electrode.
Referring to FIG. 12, curve “a” shows a potentiostatic (at 4.2 V vs. Li RE) dependence (chronoamperogram) of the 304L steel electrode exposed to the electrolyte containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC with no addition of LiClO[0103] ₄. Curve “b” shows the chronoamperogram taken in the same electrolyte with addition of 2000 ppm LiClO₄. As shown in FIG. 12, at a LiClO₄concentration of 2000 ppm, the 304 steel corrosion at +4.2 V (vs. Li reference electrode) is effectively suppressed, and the corrosion current is less than 10⁻⁶A/cm²after 30 min. of measurement. A 304 steel electrode is stable at the potentials more negative than +4.2 V vs. Li RE.
416L Stainless Steel: Referring to FIG. 13, curve “a” shows the corrosion potential of 416 steel electrode (intersection of the backscan cyclic voltammogram with 1×10[0104] ⁻⁴mA/cm²current density line) in an electrolyte containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC, and no LiC10₄. Adding 0.2% of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the corrosion potential of the 416 steel electrode 250 mV in the positive direction (curves “b”); adding 0.4% of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential 440 mV (curves “c”); and adding 0.6% and 0.8% of LiClO₄to the electrolyte shifted the potential 530 and 600 mV, respectively (curves “d” and “e”). These results demonstrate that the addition of increasing amounts of LiClO₄to the electrolyte containing LiTFS, and DME:EC:PC results in increasing degrees of corrosion protection of the a 416 steel electrode.
Referring to FIG. 14, curve “a” shows a chronoamperogram of 416 steel electrode (4.0 V vs. Li RE) exposed to an electrolyte containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC, and no LiClO[0105] ₄. Curves “b”, “c”, “d”, “e” show chronoamperograms of the 416 steel electrode exposed to the same electrolyte containing 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8% LiClO₄, respectively. As shown in FIG. 14, the addition of increasing amounts of LiClO₄to the electrolyte containing LiTFS, and DME:EC:PC results in increasing degrees of corrosion protection of the 416 steel electrode. The resulting current density in the electrolyte with addition of LiClO₄after 30 min. of polarization is in the range of 4*10⁻⁵A/cm²and decreasing.
Referring to FIG. 15, curve “a” shows a chronoamperogram of a 416 steel electrode (4.0 V vs. Li RE) exposed to the electrolyte containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC, and 0.8% of LiClO[0106] ₄. As shown in FIG. 15, the resulting current density after 50 hours of polarization is in the range of 1.5×10⁻⁵A/cm²and decreasing. As shown in FIG. 15, at a LiClO₄concentration of 0.8%, the corrosion of 416 steel at +4.0 V (vs. Li reference electrode) is effectively suppressed. A 416 steel electrode is stable at potentials more negative than +4.0 V vs. Li RE.
1008 Cold Roll Steel (CRS): Referring to FIG. 16, curve “a” shows a chronoamperogram of 1008 CRS electrode (3.6 V vs. Li RE) exposed to an electrolyte containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC, and no LiClO[0107] ₄. Curve “b” shows a chronoamperogram of 1008 CRS electrode exposed to the same electrolyte containing 1.0% LiClO₄. As shown in FIG. 16, the addition of 1.0% of LiClO₄to the electrolyte containing LiTFS, and DME:EC:PC results in successful corrosion suppression of the 1008 CRS electrode. The resulting current density in the electrolyte with the addition of 1% of LiClO₄after 16 hours of polarization is in the range of 1×10⁻⁵A/cm²and decreasing.

EXAMPLE 8

Steel Corrosion in Electrolyte Containing LiTFS, DME:EC:PC (Vial Storage Test) [0108]
The test method was generally as described in Example 6 but using steel current collectors. Direct determination of steel corrosion was performed by analytical determination of Fe ions in the electrolyte after aging (ICP method); [0109]
Stainless steel current collectors: 304 and 416 steel current collectors did not show any sign of corrosion after 20 days of storage in the electrolyte at 60° C. (background level of Fe ions in liquid phase). [0110]

CRS current collector: Direct measurements of steel corrosion were performed by determining the level of Fe ions in the electrolyte after aging of EMD based cathodes with steel current collector. The electrodes stored in the electrolyte without LiClO ₄exhibited substantial corrosion, as viewed under an optical microscope. A sample stored in the electrolyte with added LiClO₄showed virtually no corrosion. Analytical results (ICP) are summarized in a Table 2.

TABLE 2


		Fe concentration after
Sample	Electrolyte	storage (ppm)

None	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC	<1.0
EMD based cathode on	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC	17.5, 16.3
CRS current collector
EMD based cathode on	LiTFS, DME:EC:PC +	1.1, 1.0
CRS current collector	1.0% LiClO₄

The level of Fe ions in the electrolyte indicates the rate of CRS corrosion. The Fe concentration in the electrolyte without LiClO[0112] ₄addition is relatively high (the range is 16-18 ppm). Thus, part of the CRS current collector has dissolved (corroded) under the potential of the applied active cathode material (3.6V). Samples that were stored in the electrolytes with added LiClO₄did not show any corrosion (the resulting Fe concentration in the electrolyte is at the background level 1.0-1.1 ppm). The data (Table 2) confirm results of the electrochemical measurements in a glass cell: 1.0% of LiClO₄suppresses the corrosion of CRS at the potential of EMD cathode.
All publications, patents, and patent applications referred to in this application are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. [0113]

Other Embodiments

A number of embodiments of the invention have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, although the examples described above relate to batteries, the invention can be used to suppress aluminum corrosion in systems other than batteries, in which an aluminum-metal couple occurs. Other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims. [0114]

Claims

What is claimed is:

1. An electrochemical cell, comprising:

a cathode;

an anode;

a cathode current collector comprising steel; and

an electrolyte comprising a perchlorate salt and a second salt, wherein the electrochemical cell is a secondary cell.

2. The cell of claim 1, wherein the cathode current collector comprises a stainless steel.

3. The cell of claim 1, wherein the steel is selected from the group consisting of a 200 series stainless steel, a 300 series stainless steel, a 400 series stainless steel, and a cold roll steel.

4. The cell of claim 1, wherein the perchlorate salt comprises LiClO₄.

5. The cell of claim 1, wherein the perchlorate salt comprises a material selected from the group consisting of Ca(ClO₄)₂, Ba(ClO₄)₂, Al(ClO₄)₃, Mg(ClO₄)₂, KClO₄, tetrabutylammonium perchlorate, and tetraethylammonium perchlorate.

6. The cell of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 50,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

7. The cell of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 40,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

8. The cell of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 30,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

9. The cell of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 20,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

10. The cell of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 10,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

11. The cell of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 5,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

12. An electrochemical cell, comprising:

a cathode;

an anode;

a cathode current collector including steel; and

an electrolyte containing a perchlorate salt and a second salt, wherein the electrochemical cell is a primary cell.

13. The cell of claim 12, wherein the cathode comprises manganese oxide.

14. The cell of claim 12, wherein the anode comprises lithium.

15. The cell of claim 12, wherein the cathode current collector comprises a stainless steel.

16. The cell of claim 12, wherein the steel is selected from the group consisting of a 200 series stainless steel, a 300 series stainless steel, a 400 series stainless steel, and a cold roll steel.

17. The cell of claim 12, wherein the perchlorate salt comprises LiClO₄.

18. The cell of claim 12, wherein the perchlorate salt comprises a material selected from the group consisting of Ca(ClO₄)₂, Ba(ClO₄)₂, Al(ClO₄)₃, Mg(ClO₄)₂, KClO₄, tetrabutylanmonium perchlorate, and tetraethylammonium perchlorate.

19. The cell of claim 12, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 50,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

20. The cell of claim 12, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 40,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

21. The cell of claim 12, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 30,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

22. The cell of claim 12, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 20,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

23. The cell of claim 12, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 10,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

24. The cell of claim 12, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 5,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

25. An electrochemical cell, comprising:

a cathode;

an anode;

an electrolyte comprising a perchlorate salt;

a first portion comprising a steel; and

a second portion in electrical contact with the first portion, wherein the first and second portions are in electrical contact with the cathode.

26. The cell of claim 25, wherein the first portion comprises a stainless steel.

27. The cell of claim 25, wherein the steel is selected from the group consisting of a 200 series stainless steel, a 300 series stainless steel, a 400 series stainless steel, and a cold roll steel.

28. The cell of claim 25, wherein the first portion is defined by a cathode current collector.

29. The cell of claim 25, wherein the first portion is defined by a container of the cell.

30. The cell of claim 25, wherein the first portion is defined by a tab, a rivet, or a contact plate.

31. The cell of claim 25, wherein the first portion has at least one dimension greater than 0.5 mm.

32. The cell of claim 25, wherein the first portion has at least one dimension greater than 1 mm.

33. The cell of claim 25, wherein the first portion has at least one dimension greater than 2 mm.

34. The cell of claim 25, wherein the first and second portion physically contact each other.

35. The cell of claim 25, wherein the second portion comprises a steel.

36. The cell of claim 25, wherein the second portion comprises a stainless steel.

37. The cell of claim 25, wherein the second portion comprises a composition different than a composition of the first portion.

38. The cell of claim 25, wherein the second portion comprises a composition the same as a composition of the first portion.

39. The cell of claim 25, wherein the cathode comprises manganese oxide.

40. The cell of claim 25, wherein the anode comprises lithium.

41. The cell of claim 25, wherein the cell is a primary cell.

42. The cell of claim 25, wherein the cell is a secondary cell.

43. The cell of claim 25, wherein the perchlorate salt comprises LiClO₄.

44. The cell of claim 25, wherein the perchlorate salt comprises a material selected from the group consisting of Ca(ClO₄)₂, Ba(ClO₄)₂, Al(ClO₄)₃, Mg(ClO₄)₂, KClO₄, tetrabutylammonium perchlorate, and tetraethylammonium perchlorate.

45. The cell of claim 25, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 50,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

46. The cell of claim 25, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 40,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

47. The cell of claim 25, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 30,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

48. The cell of claim 25, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 20,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

49. The cell of claim 25, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 10,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

50. The cell of claim 25, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 5,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

51. An electrochemical cell, comprising:

a cathode;

an anode;

an electrolyte comprising a perchlorate salt;

a first portion comprising aluminum; and

52. The cell of claim 51, wherein the first portion comprises an aluminum alloy.

53. The cell of claim 51, wherein the first portion is defined by a tab, a rivet, or a contact plate.

54. The cell of claim 51, wherein the second portion comprises a material different than a material of the first portion.

55. The cell of claim 51, wherein the second portion comprises steel or stainless steel.

56. A method of reducing corrosion, comprising:

adding a perchlorate salt to a non-aqueous solution.

57. The method of claim 56, further comprising

placing the solution, a cathode, an anode, and a member comprising steel into an electrochemical cell.

58. The method of claim 57, wherein the member comprises a stainless steel.

59. The method of claim 57, wherein the steel is selected from the group consisting of a 200 series stainless steel, a 300 series stainless steel, a 400 series stainless steel, and a cold roll steel.

60. The method of claim 56, wherein the perchlorate salt comprises LiClO₄.

61. The method of claim 56, wherein the perchlorate salt comprises a material selected from the group consisting of Ca(ClO₄)₂, Ba(ClO₄)₂, Al(ClO₄)₃, Mg(ClO₄)₂, KClO₄, tetrabutylammonium perchlorate, and tetraethylammonium perchlorate.

62. The method of claim 56, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 50,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

63. The method of claim 56, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 40,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

64. The method of claim 56, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 30,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

65. The method of claim 56, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 20,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

66. The method of claim 56, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 10,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.

67. The method of claim 56, wherein the electrolyte comprises between about 300 ppm and about 5,000 ppm by weight of the perchlorate salt.