US20090025873A1 - Impack Resistant Composite Building Panel - Google Patents
Impack Resistant Composite Building Panel Download PDFInfo
- Publication number
- US20090025873A1 US20090025873A1 US12/203,466 US20346608A US2009025873A1 US 20090025873 A1 US20090025873 A1 US 20090025873A1 US 20346608 A US20346608 A US 20346608A US 2009025873 A1 US2009025873 A1 US 2009025873A1
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- United States
- Prior art keywords
- reinforcing sheet
- metal skins
- adhesive
- fabric reinforcing
- polymer core
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- Abandoned
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B15/00—Layered products comprising a layer of metal
- B32B15/04—Layered products comprising a layer of metal comprising metal as the main or only constituent of a layer, which is next to another layer of the same or of a different material
- B32B15/08—Layered products comprising a layer of metal comprising metal as the main or only constituent of a layer, which is next to another layer of the same or of a different material of synthetic resin
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B15/00—Layered products comprising a layer of metal
- B32B15/14—Layered products comprising a layer of metal next to a fibrous or filamentary layer
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B15/00—Layered products comprising a layer of metal
- B32B15/20—Layered products comprising a layer of metal comprising aluminium or copper
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B27/00—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin
- B32B27/04—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin as impregnant, bonding, or embedding substance
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B27/00—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin
- B32B27/12—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin next to a fibrous or filamentary layer
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B27/00—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin
- B32B27/18—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin characterised by the use of special additives
- B32B27/20—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin characterised by the use of special additives using fillers, pigments, thixotroping agents
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B27/00—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin
- B32B27/30—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin comprising vinyl (co)polymers; comprising acrylic (co)polymers
- B32B27/306—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin comprising vinyl (co)polymers; comprising acrylic (co)polymers comprising vinyl acetate or vinyl alcohol (co)polymers
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B27/00—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin
- B32B27/32—Layered products comprising a layer of synthetic resin comprising polyolefins
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B7/00—Layered products characterised by the relation between layers; Layered products characterised by the relative orientation of features between layers, or by the relative values of a measurable parameter between layers, i.e. products comprising layers having different physical, chemical or physicochemical properties; Layered products characterised by the interconnection of layers
- B32B7/04—Interconnection of layers
- B32B7/12—Interconnection of layers using interposed adhesives or interposed materials with bonding properties
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B2262/00—Composition or structural features of fibres which form a fibrous or filamentary layer or are present as additives
- B32B2262/02—Synthetic macromolecular fibres
- B32B2262/0261—Polyamide fibres
- B32B2262/0269—Aromatic polyamide fibres
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B2307/00—Properties of the layers or laminate
- B32B2307/30—Properties of the layers or laminate having particular thermal properties
- B32B2307/306—Resistant to heat
- B32B2307/3065—Flame resistant or retardant, fire resistant or retardant
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B2307/00—Properties of the layers or laminate
- B32B2307/50—Properties of the layers or laminate having particular mechanical properties
- B32B2307/558—Impact strength, toughness
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B2307/00—Properties of the layers or laminate
- B32B2307/70—Other properties
- B32B2307/718—Weight, e.g. weight per square meter
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B32—LAYERED PRODUCTS
- B32B—LAYERED PRODUCTS, i.e. PRODUCTS BUILT-UP OF STRATA OF FLAT OR NON-FLAT, e.g. CELLULAR OR HONEYCOMB, FORM
- B32B2607/00—Walls, panels
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
- Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
- Y10T428/00—Stock material or miscellaneous articles
- Y10T428/24—Structurally defined web or sheet [e.g., overall dimension, etc.]
- Y10T428/24942—Structurally defined web or sheet [e.g., overall dimension, etc.] including components having same physical characteristic in differing degree
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
- Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
- Y10T428/00—Stock material or miscellaneous articles
- Y10T428/24—Structurally defined web or sheet [e.g., overall dimension, etc.]
- Y10T428/24942—Structurally defined web or sheet [e.g., overall dimension, etc.] including components having same physical characteristic in differing degree
- Y10T428/2495—Thickness [relative or absolute]
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
- Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
- Y10T428/00—Stock material or miscellaneous articles
- Y10T428/24—Structurally defined web or sheet [e.g., overall dimension, etc.]
- Y10T428/24942—Structurally defined web or sheet [e.g., overall dimension, etc.] including components having same physical characteristic in differing degree
- Y10T428/2495—Thickness [relative or absolute]
- Y10T428/24959—Thickness [relative or absolute] of adhesive layers
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
- Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
- Y10T428/00—Stock material or miscellaneous articles
- Y10T428/24—Structurally defined web or sheet [e.g., overall dimension, etc.]
- Y10T428/24942—Structurally defined web or sheet [e.g., overall dimension, etc.] including components having same physical characteristic in differing degree
- Y10T428/2495—Thickness [relative or absolute]
- Y10T428/24967—Absolute thicknesses specified
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
- Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
- Y10T428/00—Stock material or miscellaneous articles
- Y10T428/249921—Web or sheet containing structurally defined element or component
- Y10T428/249924—Noninterengaged fiber-containing paper-free web or sheet which is not of specified porosity
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
- Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
- Y10T442/00—Fabric [woven, knitted, or nonwoven textile or cloth, etc.]
- Y10T442/60—Nonwoven fabric [i.e., nonwoven strand or fiber material]
- Y10T442/647—Including a foamed layer or component
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
- Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
- Y10T442/00—Fabric [woven, knitted, or nonwoven textile or cloth, etc.]
- Y10T442/60—Nonwoven fabric [i.e., nonwoven strand or fiber material]
- Y10T442/647—Including a foamed layer or component
- Y10T442/648—Including a free metal or alloy constituent
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
- Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
- Y10T442/00—Fabric [woven, knitted, or nonwoven textile or cloth, etc.]
- Y10T442/60—Nonwoven fabric [i.e., nonwoven strand or fiber material]
- Y10T442/654—Including a free metal or alloy constituent
- Y10T442/656—Preformed metallic film or foil or sheet [film or foil or sheet had structural integrity prior to association with the nonwoven fabric]
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
- Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
- Y10T442/00—Fabric [woven, knitted, or nonwoven textile or cloth, etc.]
- Y10T442/60—Nonwoven fabric [i.e., nonwoven strand or fiber material]
- Y10T442/674—Nonwoven fabric with a preformed polymeric film or sheet
- Y10T442/678—Olefin polymer or copolymer sheet or film [e.g., polypropylene, polyethylene, ethylene-butylene copolymer, etc.]
Definitions
- the present invention relates to building panels. More specifically, the invention provides an impact resistant exterior building panel having a fabric reinforcing layer and a polymer core between a pair of metal skins.
- the wall sections also are heavy, and the wood adds fuel content to the system, decreasing the overall fire resistance of the structure. There exists a need to improve the impact resistance of these metal composite material building panels, to meet the impact requirements for severe storm resistance, without the use of the plywood sheathing.
- the present invention provides a metal composite building panel having a fabric reinforcing sheet disposed between the outer metal skin and the polymer core.
- the fabric reinforcing sheet is preferably an aramed fiber sheet, that preferably has a weight of about 5 oz./yd. 2 to about 20 oz./yd. 2 . It preferably has a thickness of about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.03 inch (0.762 mm).
- Other high strength fibers having a tenacity greater than 10 grams/denier, may be used as well, for example, high strength polyethylene, polyester or nylon fibers, or fiberglass.
- the outer skin of the building panel is preferably a metal such as aluminum, aluminum alloy, stainless steel, galvanized steel, zinc, or titanium. 3XXX and 5XXX series aluminum alloys are particularly preferred.
- the metal skin preferably has a thickness of about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.03 inch (0.762 mm).
- the polymer core preferably includes a polymer selected from the group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, or other polyolefin polymers and copolymers thereof.
- a preferred polymer core includes polyethylene, with the possible addition of fillers such as aluminum trihydrate, calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, and/or others.
- the thickness of the polymer core may vary considerably, depending on the thickness and stiffness desired for the panel, but will typically be less than one inch (2.54 cm.).
- the metal skins, polymer core, and fabric reinforcing sheet may be secured together using adhesives or “tie layers” that are sensitive to heat and/or pressure, such as the class of anhydride modified polyolefin adhesives sold under the trade names BYNEL® or PLEXAR®.
- Anhydride modified high density polyethylene adhesives are preferred, but multi-component polyolefin compositions such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,855,432, which is expressly incorporated herein by reference, may be used as well, with adhesive components selected for their affinity to different adjacent panel materials.
- thermosetting or thermoplastic adhesive systems can be used as well, depending on the materials used for the polymer core and metal skins, for example, epoxies, polyurethanes, phenol resorcinals, vinyl acrylates, and other similar adhesives.
- the panel is made by first laminating an adhesive layer to each side of the fabric reinforcing sheet.
- the fabric reinforcing sheet may then be processed as a single layer of fiber-reinforced adhesive, in the same manner as a simple adhesive layer would be processed.
- the combination of the adhesive coated fabric reinforcing sheet, exterior skin, and polymer core, along with an additional adhesive between the polymer core and opposing skin, are then stacked in the appropriate sequence and bonded together using heat and pressure.
- the resulting laminated structure may then be cut into individual panels.
- FIG. 1 is a cross sectional edge view of one embodiment of a building panel according to the present invention.
- FIG. 2 is an edge cross sectional view of another embodiment of a building panel according to the present invention.
- FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a manufacturing process for a composite panel of the present invention.
- the present invention provides a reinforced building panel providing improved impact resistance without adding substantial additional weight or adding fuel content as occurred with prior composite panels.
- the panel 10 includes an outer skin 12 and inner skin 14 , with a core 16 disposed therebetween.
- a fabric reinforcement sheet 18 is disposed between the core 16 and outer skin 12 .
- An adhesive layer 20 secures the outer skin 12 to the fabric reinforcing sheet 18 .
- an adhesive 22 secures the fabric reinforcing sheet 18 and core 16 together.
- Another adhesive 24 secures the core 16 to the inner skin 14 .
- the outer skin 12 and inner skin 14 are preferably made from a metal such as aluminum, aluminum alloys, stainless steel, galvanized steel, zinc, or titanium. Preferred metals include 3XXX and 5XXX series aluminum alloys, with 3105 aluminum alloy being particularly preferred.
- the outer skin 12 and inner skin 14 preferably have a thickness of about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.03 inch (0.762 mm), with a thickness of about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.02 inch (0.508 mm) being more preferred.
- the core 16 is preferably made from a polymer having a density greater than 20 lb./ft. 3 (328.382 kg./m. 3 ).
- Preferred polymers include polyethylene and other polyolefins, with the possible addition of fillers such as aluminum tri-hydrate, calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide and/or others known to those skilled in the art of composite panels.
- the thickness of the polymer core may vary considerably, but will typically be less than about one inch (2.54 cm), and is preferably between about 1.5 mm. (0.059 inch) and about 5 mm. (0.199 inch).
- the fabric reinforcing sheet 18 is preferably an aramid fiber sheet having a weight of about 5 oz./yd. 2 to about 20 oz./yd 2 .
- a more preferred aramid fiber sheet has a weight of about 7 oz./yd. 2 to about 14 oz./yd 2 .
- An example of a preferred aramid fiber is marketed under the trademark KEVLAR.
- Other high strength fibers, having a tenacity greater than 10 grams/denier, may be used as well, for example, high strength polyethylene, polyester or nylon fibers, or fiberglass.
- the adhesive layers 20 , 22 , 24 may be a multi-component anhydride modified polyolefin adhesive, or anhydride modified high density polyethylene adhesive. Examples of preferred polyethylene adhesives are sold under the trademarks PLEXAR® and BYNEL®.
- the adhesive layers 20 , 22 , 24 preferably have a thickness between about 0.002 inch (0.051 mm) and 0.006 inch (0.152 mm).
- FIG. 2 illustrates another embodiment of a building panel 26 .
- the panel 26 includes an outer skin 28 and inner skin 30 .
- a core 32 is disposed between the outer skin 28 and inner skin 30 .
- a fabric reinforcing sheet 34 is disposed between the core 32 and outer skin 28 .
- An adhesive layer 36 secures the fabric reinforcing sheet 34 to a core 32 .
- an adhesive layer 38 secures the core 32 to the inner skin 30 .
- the adhesive layer 40 between the fabric reinforcing sheet 34 and outer skin 28 includes two different adhesive layers bound together, with the first adhesive layer 42 being adjacent to the outer skin 28 and having an affinity for the outer skin 28 , and the second layer 44 being adjacent to the fabric reinforcing sheet 34 , and having an affinity for the fabric reinforcing sheet 34 .
- the outer skin 28 and inner skin 30 are preferably made from a metal such as aluminum, aluminum alloys, stainless steel, galvanized steel, zinc, and titanium, with aluminum alloys being preferred. 3XXX and 5XXX series aluminum alloys are more preferred with 3105 aluminum alloy being particularly preferred.
- the outer skin 28 and inner skin 30 preferably have a thickness between about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) and about 0.03 inch (0.762 mm), with a more preferred thickness being between about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.02 inch (0.051 mm).
- the core 32 is preferably made from a polymer having a density greater than 20 lb./ft. 3 (328.382 kg./m. 3 ).
- Preferred polymers include polyethylene and other polyolefins, with the possible addition of fillers such as aluminum tri-hydrate, calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide and/or others known to those skilled in the art of composite panels.
- the thickness of the polymer core may vary considerably, but will typically be less than about one inch, and is preferably between about 1.5 mm (0.03 in.). and about 5 mm (0.059 in.).
- the fabric reinforcing sheet 34 is preferably an aramid fiber sheet having a weight of about 5 oz./yd. 2 to about 20 oz./yd 2 .
- a more preferred aramid fiber sheet has a weight of about 7 oz./yd. 2 to about 14 oz./yd 2 .
- An example of a preferred aramid fiber is marketed under the trademark KEVLAR®.
- Other high strength fibers, having a tenacity greater than 10 grams/denier, may be used as well, for example, high strength polyethylene, polyester or nylon fibers, or fiberglass.
- the adhesive layers 36 , 38 may be either anhydride modified polyolefin adhesive or anhydride modified high density polyethylene adhesive.
- the adhesive layers 36 , 38 preferably have a thickness of about 0.002 inch (0.051 mm.) to about 0.006 inch (0.152 mm.).
- the adhesive layer 40 in this embodiment of the composite panel 26 includes two layers of adhesive 42 , 44 .
- Both layers 42 , 44 are preferably anhydride modified polyolefin adhesives composed of anhydride modified polyethylene or ethylene vinyl acetate. Examples of preferred adhesives are presently marketed under the trademark BYNEL®.
- Anhydride modified polyethylene is particularly preferred for layer 42 , for binding with the outer skin 28 .
- Anhydride modified ethylene vinyl acetate is particularly preferred for the layer 44 , for binding with the fabric reinforcing sheet 34 .
- the composite panels 10 , 26 are made by first laminating the appropriate adhesive layers 20 , 22 or 36 , 40 to the fabric reinforcing sheet 18 , 34 .
- the combination of the fabric reinforcing sheet and adhesive layers is then stacked along with the outer skin 12 , 28 , inner skin 14 , 30 , core 16 , 32 , and adhesive 24 , 38 .
- the various layers of each panel 10 , 26 are adhesively bound together by the application of heat and/or pressure.
- FIG. 3 One example of a process by which a panel 10 , 26 may be made is illustrated in FIG. 3 .
- the appropriate polyolefin or polymeric resin pellets are introduced at 46 into the extruder 48 , which extrudes a core layer 50 of the preselected thickness. After the core 50 undergoes air cooling at 52 , it passes through a reheat oven 54 .
- Aluminum sheet 56 (for the outer skin 12 , 28 ) and 58 (for the inner skin 14 , 30 ) is supplied from the rolls 60 , 62 , respectively.
- the sheet 56 , 58 is first passed through a preheat oven 64 , 66 , respectively.
- the roll 68 supplies a fabric reinforcing sheet 18 , 34 having the adhesive layers 20 , 22 or the adhesive layers 36 , 40 already laminated thereto.
- the rolls 70 supplies an adhesive layer 24 , 38 .
- the combination 72 of the sheet 56 and reinforcing layer from the roll 68 pass through the oven 74 .
- the combination 76 of the sheet 58 plus the adhesive layer from the roll 70 pass through the oven 78 .
- the metal/reinforcing layer combination 72 and metal/adhesive combination 76 may then be directed around the rollers 80 , 82 , respectively, and are then subsequently directed around the rollers 84 , 86 , respectively.
- the layers are pressed together into a single laminated structure 88 that is secured together by the various adhesive layers therein, which have been activated by heat and/or pressure.
- the laminated structure 88 is then air cooled at 90 , and cut into individual panels 92 by a cutting device 94 .
- the cutting device 94 may be a saw.
- the individual panels 92 may then be stacked and packaged for shipment.
- a metal composite panel of the present invention is particularly advantageous because a laminated structure consisting of a fabric reinforcing sheet 18 , 34 , and the adhesive layers 20 , 22 , or 36 , 40 may be processed exactly as a single adhesive layer, without any fabric reinforcement, may be processed. It has been found that a panel 10 , 26 of the present invention will withstand the impact of a 15 lb. (6.803 kg.) 2 in. ⁇ 4 in. (5.08 cm. ⁇ 10.16 cm.) timber projectile traveling at 50 ft./sec. (15.24 m./sec.) without being penetrated by the timber.
- a building panel 10 , 26 of the present invention retains substantially the same fire resistant properties as a prior art building panel without a fabric reinforcing sheet 18 , 34 , unlike presently used plywood reinforced composite panels.
- the panel 10 , 26 also remains relatively lightweight.
- the composite panels 10 , 26 are easy to manufacture, requiring only minor modifications of presently used manufacturing procedures.
Abstract
A composite building panel that includes a fabric reinforcing sheet between one of the metal skins and the core of the panel. The fabric reinforcing sheet, which is preferably made from aramid fibers improves the impact resistance and penetration resistance of the building panel without substantially increasing weight and without adding fuel content to the panel system.
Description
- 1. Field of the Invention
- The present invention relates to building panels. More specifically, the invention provides an impact resistant exterior building panel having a fabric reinforcing layer and a polymer core between a pair of metal skins.
- 2. Description of the Related Art
- The need for reinforced building panels in regions that are subject to hurricanes and other storms capable of significantly damaging buildings is increasingly recognized. In many areas of the United States, building codes are now requiring commercial and residential structures to be designed to resist the wind loads and debris impact loads generated by these severe storms. Current practice for many of these areas is to sheath the exterior surface of the structure with minimum ⅝ inch thick plywood, before application of the final building exterior covering. For example, wall panels in Florida that use composite building panels having metal skins and polymer cores are typically installed over ⅝ inch (1.588 cm) thick 5-ply plywood to meet the debris impact load requirements specified by the Florida building code. Although the plywood provides excellent impact resistance, its installation increases costs and build time for the structure. The wall sections also are heavy, and the wood adds fuel content to the system, decreasing the overall fire resistance of the structure. There exists a need to improve the impact resistance of these metal composite material building panels, to meet the impact requirements for severe storm resistance, without the use of the plywood sheathing.
- Methods to improve the impact resistance for metal composite panels for uses other than building panels are described in other patents. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,092,952 issued to M. G. Minnick et al. on Mar. 3, 1992, discloses a composite panel having an aluminum skin and a glass fiber reinforced polypropylene core. The skin is laminated to the core using an adhesive having an ethylene/acrylic acid copolymer combined with a linear low density polyethylene or a thermoplastic styrene/diene block copolymer. Similar inventions are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,246,523, issued to M. G. Minnick et al. on Sep. 21, 1993, U.S. Pat. No. 5,248,367 issued to M. G. Minnick et al. on Sep. 21, 1993 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,248,369, issued to M. G. Minnick et al. on Sep. 28, 1993. Reinforcement of these panels is provided by the continuous dispersion of the reinforcing fibers within the polymer core as it is being produced. This type of reinforcement would not provide the same impact resistance as a panel having a reinforcing layer directly adjacent to the outer skin. Furthermore, production of these panels is more cumbersome.
- Similar approaches to continuous dispersion of fibers into a polymer core of a metal composite are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,586,110, issued to D. F. Obershaw on Jul. 1, 2003. This patent discloses composite structural members having exterior and interior skins that may be made from metallic sheet, with a core having a ribbed structure and a resinous or polymeric filler therein. In some embodiments, sheet molding compounds are used for the inner or outer portions, and may be reinforced with KEVLAR® fibers. The rib structure within the core precludes the use of manufacturing procedures that could be used without such a ribbed core.
- Approaches to improving the adhesion of the metal skins to the polymer cores of metal composite material are described in other patents. One example is U.S. Pat. No. 6,855,432, issued to S. Hobajar, et al. on Feb. 15, 2005, disclosing an adhesive composition that is particularly useful for joining aluminum skins to polymer cores to form composite panels. No method of reinforcing a panel is disclosed.
- Approaches to bonding parallel aramid fibers inside aluminum sheets with various adhesive systems are also described in the art. These materials were designed to provide high performance aerospace materials for use in wing skins and other aerodynamic control surfaces and are detailed in patents such as EP 0056289-B1; U.S. Pat. No. 4,029,838; U.S. Pat. No. 4,500,589; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,227,216. None of these are directed at providing the impact improvements needed for typical metal composite building panels to meet the requirements for use in storm prone areas.
- Accordingly, there is a need for an improved building panel for use in storm prone regions that offers improved impact resistance without increasing the weight of the panel or compromising the fire retardation properties of the wall system. There is a further need for a building panel having good adhesion between the outer metal skin and interior core components, and which is easy and inexpensive to manufacture.
- The present invention provides a metal composite building panel having a fabric reinforcing sheet disposed between the outer metal skin and the polymer core.
- The fabric reinforcing sheet is preferably an aramed fiber sheet, that preferably has a weight of about 5 oz./yd.2 to about 20 oz./yd.2. It preferably has a thickness of about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.03 inch (0.762 mm). Other high strength fibers, having a tenacity greater than 10 grams/denier, may be used as well, for example, high strength polyethylene, polyester or nylon fibers, or fiberglass.
- The outer skin of the building panel is preferably a metal such as aluminum, aluminum alloy, stainless steel, galvanized steel, zinc, or titanium. 3XXX and 5XXX series aluminum alloys are particularly preferred. The metal skin preferably has a thickness of about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.03 inch (0.762 mm).
- The polymer core preferably includes a polymer selected from the group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, or other polyolefin polymers and copolymers thereof. A preferred polymer core includes polyethylene, with the possible addition of fillers such as aluminum trihydrate, calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, and/or others. The thickness of the polymer core may vary considerably, depending on the thickness and stiffness desired for the panel, but will typically be less than one inch (2.54 cm.).
- The metal skins, polymer core, and fabric reinforcing sheet may be secured together using adhesives or “tie layers” that are sensitive to heat and/or pressure, such as the class of anhydride modified polyolefin adhesives sold under the trade names BYNEL® or PLEXAR®. Anhydride modified high density polyethylene adhesives are preferred, but multi-component polyolefin compositions such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,855,432, which is expressly incorporated herein by reference, may be used as well, with adhesive components selected for their affinity to different adjacent panel materials. Other thermosetting or thermoplastic adhesive systems can be used as well, depending on the materials used for the polymer core and metal skins, for example, epoxies, polyurethanes, phenol resorcinals, vinyl acrylates, and other similar adhesives.
- The panel is made by first laminating an adhesive layer to each side of the fabric reinforcing sheet. The fabric reinforcing sheet may then be processed as a single layer of fiber-reinforced adhesive, in the same manner as a simple adhesive layer would be processed. The combination of the adhesive coated fabric reinforcing sheet, exterior skin, and polymer core, along with an additional adhesive between the polymer core and opposing skin, are then stacked in the appropriate sequence and bonded together using heat and pressure. The resulting laminated structure may then be cut into individual panels.
- It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide a building panel with a fabric reinforcing layer that is capable of resisting penetration of the panel in standard impact resistance tests in hurricane prone regions.
- It is another object of the invention to provide a building panel that is light weight.
- It a further object of the invention to provide a building panel system that reduces fuel content, and meets approval standards in regions wherein plywood-reinforced panels are no longer acceptable.
- It is another object of the present invention to provide a building panel that may be manufactured with only minimal modification to the manufacturing equipment lines presently used for composite building panels.
- These and other objects of the invention will become more apparent through the following description and drawings.
-
FIG. 1 is a cross sectional edge view of one embodiment of a building panel according to the present invention. -
FIG. 2 is an edge cross sectional view of another embodiment of a building panel according to the present invention. -
FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a manufacturing process for a composite panel of the present invention. - Like reference characters denote like elements throughout the drawings.
- The present invention provides a reinforced building panel providing improved impact resistance without adding substantial additional weight or adding fuel content as occurred with prior composite panels.
- Referring to
FIG. 1 , one embodiment of acomposite panel 10 is illustrated. Thepanel 10 includes anouter skin 12 andinner skin 14, with a core 16 disposed therebetween. Afabric reinforcement sheet 18 is disposed between the core 16 andouter skin 12. Anadhesive layer 20 secures theouter skin 12 to thefabric reinforcing sheet 18. Likewise, an adhesive 22 secures thefabric reinforcing sheet 18 andcore 16 together. Another adhesive 24 secures the core 16 to theinner skin 14. - The
outer skin 12 andinner skin 14 are preferably made from a metal such as aluminum, aluminum alloys, stainless steel, galvanized steel, zinc, or titanium. Preferred metals include 3XXX and 5XXX series aluminum alloys, with 3105 aluminum alloy being particularly preferred. Theouter skin 12 andinner skin 14 preferably have a thickness of about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.03 inch (0.762 mm), with a thickness of about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.02 inch (0.508 mm) being more preferred. - The
core 16 is preferably made from a polymer having a density greater than 20 lb./ft.3 (328.382 kg./m.3). Preferred polymers include polyethylene and other polyolefins, with the possible addition of fillers such as aluminum tri-hydrate, calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide and/or others known to those skilled in the art of composite panels. The thickness of the polymer core may vary considerably, but will typically be less than about one inch (2.54 cm), and is preferably between about 1.5 mm. (0.059 inch) and about 5 mm. (0.199 inch). - The
fabric reinforcing sheet 18 is preferably an aramid fiber sheet having a weight of about 5 oz./yd.2 to about 20 oz./yd2. A more preferred aramid fiber sheet has a weight of about 7 oz./yd.2 to about 14 oz./yd2. An example of a preferred aramid fiber is marketed under the trademark KEVLAR. Other high strength fibers, having a tenacity greater than 10 grams/denier, may be used as well, for example, high strength polyethylene, polyester or nylon fibers, or fiberglass. - The adhesive layers 20, 22, 24 may be a multi-component anhydride modified polyolefin adhesive, or anhydride modified high density polyethylene adhesive. Examples of preferred polyethylene adhesives are sold under the trademarks PLEXAR® and BYNEL®. The adhesive layers 20, 22, 24 preferably have a thickness between about 0.002 inch (0.051 mm) and 0.006 inch (0.152 mm).
-
FIG. 2 illustrates another embodiment of abuilding panel 26. Thepanel 26 includes anouter skin 28 andinner skin 30. Acore 32 is disposed between theouter skin 28 andinner skin 30. Afabric reinforcing sheet 34 is disposed between the core 32 andouter skin 28. Anadhesive layer 36 secures thefabric reinforcing sheet 34 to acore 32. Likewise, anadhesive layer 38 secures the core 32 to theinner skin 30. Theadhesive layer 40 between thefabric reinforcing sheet 34 andouter skin 28 includes two different adhesive layers bound together, with the firstadhesive layer 42 being adjacent to theouter skin 28 and having an affinity for theouter skin 28, and thesecond layer 44 being adjacent to thefabric reinforcing sheet 34, and having an affinity for thefabric reinforcing sheet 34. - As before, the
outer skin 28 andinner skin 30 are preferably made from a metal such as aluminum, aluminum alloys, stainless steel, galvanized steel, zinc, and titanium, with aluminum alloys being preferred. 3XXX and 5XXX series aluminum alloys are more preferred with 3105 aluminum alloy being particularly preferred. Theouter skin 28 andinner skin 30 preferably have a thickness between about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) and about 0.03 inch (0.762 mm), with a more preferred thickness being between about 0.01 inch (0.254 mm) to about 0.02 inch (0.051 mm). - The
core 32 is preferably made from a polymer having a density greater than 20 lb./ft.3 (328.382 kg./m.3). Preferred polymers include polyethylene and other polyolefins, with the possible addition of fillers such as aluminum tri-hydrate, calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide and/or others known to those skilled in the art of composite panels. The thickness of the polymer core may vary considerably, but will typically be less than about one inch, and is preferably between about 1.5 mm (0.03 in.). and about 5 mm (0.059 in.). - The
fabric reinforcing sheet 34 is preferably an aramid fiber sheet having a weight of about 5 oz./yd.2 to about 20 oz./yd2. A more preferred aramid fiber sheet has a weight of about 7 oz./yd.2 to about 14 oz./yd2. An example of a preferred aramid fiber is marketed under the trademark KEVLAR®. Other high strength fibers, having a tenacity greater than 10 grams/denier, may be used as well, for example, high strength polyethylene, polyester or nylon fibers, or fiberglass. - The adhesive layers 36, 38 may be either anhydride modified polyolefin adhesive or anhydride modified high density polyethylene adhesive. The adhesive layers 36, 38 preferably have a thickness of about 0.002 inch (0.051 mm.) to about 0.006 inch (0.152 mm.).
- The
adhesive layer 40 in this embodiment of thecomposite panel 26 includes two layers of adhesive 42, 44. Both layers 42, 44 are preferably anhydride modified polyolefin adhesives composed of anhydride modified polyethylene or ethylene vinyl acetate. Examples of preferred adhesives are presently marketed under the trademark BYNEL®. Anhydride modified polyethylene is particularly preferred forlayer 42, for binding with theouter skin 28. Anhydride modified ethylene vinyl acetate is particularly preferred for thelayer 44, for binding with thefabric reinforcing sheet 34. - The
composite panels fabric reinforcing sheet outer skin inner skin core panel - One example of a process by which a
panel FIG. 3 . The appropriate polyolefin or polymeric resin pellets are introduced at 46 into theextruder 48, which extrudes acore layer 50 of the preselected thickness. After thecore 50 undergoes air cooling at 52, it passes through areheat oven 54. - Aluminum sheet 56 (for the
outer skin 12, 28) and 58 (for theinner skin 14, 30) is supplied from therolls sheet preheat oven roll 68 supplies afabric reinforcing sheet adhesive layers adhesive layers rolls 70 supplies anadhesive layer combination 72 of thesheet 56 and reinforcing layer from theroll 68 pass through theoven 74. Likewise, thecombination 76 of thesheet 58 plus the adhesive layer from theroll 70 pass through theoven 78. The metal/reinforcinglayer combination 72 and metal/adhesive combination 76 may then be directed around therollers rollers - As the
core layer 50, metal/reinforcinglayer combination 72, and metal/adhesive layer combination 76 pass between therollers laminated structure 88 that is secured together by the various adhesive layers therein, which have been activated by heat and/or pressure. Thelaminated structure 88 is then air cooled at 90, and cut intoindividual panels 92 by a cuttingdevice 94. The cuttingdevice 94 may be a saw. Theindividual panels 92 may then be stacked and packaged for shipment. - Those skilled in the art of composite panels will recognize that the above disclosed procedure employs a similar manufacturing equipment line to that presently used for manufacturing prior art metal composite panels. A metal composite panel of the present invention is particularly advantageous because a laminated structure consisting of a
fabric reinforcing sheet adhesive layers panel - A
building panel fabric reinforcing sheet panel composite panels - While a specific embodiment of the invention has been described in detail, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and alternatives to those details could be developed in light of the overall teachings of the disclosure. Accordingly, the particular arrangements disclosed are meant to be illustrative only and not limiting as to the scope of the invention which is to be given the full breadth of the appended claims and any and all equivalents thereof.
Claims (11)
1-16. (canceled)
17. A method of manufacturing a building panel comprising:
an outer metal skin;
an inner metal skin;
a polymer core;
a fabric reinforcing sheet disposed between one of the metal skins and the polymer core;
a first adhesive disposed between the fabric reinforcing sheet and the one of the metal skins, the first adhesive securing the fabric reinforcing sheet to the one of the metal skins;
a second adhesive disposed between the fabric reinforcing sheet and the polymer core, the second adhesive securing the fabric reinforcing sheet to the polymer core; and
a third adhesive disposed between the other of the metal skins and the polymer core, securing the other of the metal skins to the polymer core;
the method comprising;
applying a one side of the fabric reinforcing sheet, having the first adhesive affixed to the one side of the fabric reinforcing sheet and the second adhesive affixed to another side of the fabric reinforcing sheet, to the one of the metal skins;
applying the third adhesive to a one side of the other of the metal skins;
providing the polymer core; and
simultaneously applying the another side of the fabric reinforcing sheet and the one side of the other of the metal skins to the polymer core.
18. The method of claim 17 wherein the step of applying the one side of the fabric reinforcing sheet includes the step of applying the one side of the fabric reinforcing sheet to the outer metal skin.
19. The method of claim 17 wherein the step of applying a one side of the fabric reinforcing sheet to the one of the metal skins comprises the steps of:
providing an extended length of the one of the metal skins;
heating a portion of the extended length of the one of the metal skins;
providing an extended length of the fabric reinforcing sheet with the first adhesive laminated on the one side of the fabric reinforcing sheet and the second adhesive laminated on the another side of the fabric reinforcing sheet;
pressing a portion of the one side of the fabric reinforcing sheet with the first adhesive laminated on it against a surface of the portion of the extended length of the one of the metal skins; and
heating the portion of the one of the metal skins with the portion of the fabric reinforcing sheet with the first adhesive pressed against it.
20. The method of claim 19 wherein the step of applying the third adhesive to a one side of the other of the metal skins comprises the steps of:
providing an extended length of the other of the metal skins;
heating a portion of the extended length of the other of the metal skins;
providing an extended length of a laminate of the third adhesive;
pressing a portion of the laminate against a surface of the portion of the extended length of the other of the metal skins; and
heating the portion of the extended length of the other of the metal skins with the laminate pressed against it.
21. The method of claim 20 wherein the step of simultaneously applying the another side of the portion of the fabric reinforcing sheet with the second adhesive laminated on it and the one side of the other of the metal skins to the polymer core comprises the step of simultaneously pressing the heated combination of the one of the metal skins and the reinforcing fabric sheet with the second adhesive laminated on the another side of the fabric reinforcing sheet and the heated portion of the other of the metal skins with the laminate of the third adhesive pressed against it, respectively each against an opposing side of the polymer core.
22. The method of claim 21 wherein the step of simultaneously pressing is achieved by running the heated combination of the portion of the one of the metal skins and the reinforcing fabric sheet with the second adhesive laminated on the another side of the fabric reinforcing sheet, a portion of an extended length of the polymer core and the heated portion of the other of the metal skins with the laminate of the third adhesive pressed against it simultaneously through a pair of rollers.
23. The method of claim 22 wherein a predetermined length of the pressed together combination of the one of the metal skins, the fabric reinforcing sheet, the polymer core and the other of the metal skins is periodically cut after it exits the rollers to provide a continuous manufacturing process over at least the shorter of the extended lengths of the reinforcing fabric sheets, the polymer core, the one of the metal skins and the other of the metal skins.
24. The method of claim 17 wherein the step of providing the polymer core comprises:
extruding an extended length of polymer core;
cooling the extruded polymer core; and
reheating the extruded polymer core before simultaneously applying the another side of the fabric reinforcing sheet and the one side of the other of the metal skins to the polymer core.
25. The method of claim 24 wherein the cooling step comprises air cooling.
26. The method of claim 17 including the step of making the fabric reinforcing sheet from aramid fibers.
Priority Applications (1)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
US12/203,466 US20090025873A1 (en) | 2006-03-01 | 2008-09-03 | Impack Resistant Composite Building Panel |
Applications Claiming Priority (2)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
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US11/365,122 US7446064B2 (en) | 2006-03-01 | 2006-03-01 | Impact resistant building panels |
US12/203,466 US20090025873A1 (en) | 2006-03-01 | 2008-09-03 | Impack Resistant Composite Building Panel |
Related Parent Applications (1)
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US11/365,122 Division US7446064B2 (en) | 2006-03-01 | 2006-03-01 | Impact resistant building panels |
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US11/365,122 Expired - Fee Related US7446064B2 (en) | 2006-03-01 | 2006-03-01 | Impact resistant building panels |
US12/203,466 Abandoned US20090025873A1 (en) | 2006-03-01 | 2008-09-03 | Impack Resistant Composite Building Panel |
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US11/365,122 Expired - Fee Related US7446064B2 (en) | 2006-03-01 | 2006-03-01 | Impact resistant building panels |
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US (2) | US7446064B2 (en) |
WO (1) | WO2007103673A1 (en) |
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US20130276623A1 (en) * | 2011-11-22 | 2013-10-24 | Dan Moore | Ballistic shield device |
DE102012105628A1 (en) * | 2012-06-27 | 2014-01-02 | Thyssenkrupp Steel Europe Ag | wall element |
EP2868469A1 (en) * | 2013-10-31 | 2015-05-06 | Alcoa Architectural Products SAS | Double sheet aluminum panel and method for manufacture thereof |
US9809005B2 (en) * | 2014-10-03 | 2017-11-07 | Antiballistic Security And Protection, Inc. | Anti-ballistic materials and system |
US20170165904A1 (en) * | 2015-12-11 | 2017-06-15 | Ak Steel Properties, Inc. | Composite steel |
WO2017100900A1 (en) * | 2015-12-15 | 2017-06-22 | Farid Taheri | Method of making a 3d glass fiber metal laminate and 3d laminate structural panel |
KR102294372B1 (en) | 2016-06-10 | 2021-08-26 | (주)엘엑스하우시스 | A molded object and a manufacturing method thereof |
US11198273B2 (en) | 2016-06-10 | 2021-12-14 | Lg Hausys, Ltd. | Sandwich panel and a manufacturing method thereof |
US11001035B2 (en) | 2016-06-10 | 2021-05-11 | Lg Hausys, Ltd. | Sandwich panel and a manufacturing method thereof |
DE102019132953A1 (en) * | 2019-12-04 | 2021-06-10 | 3A Composites Gmbh | Laminate |
KR20230024295A (en) * | 2020-06-12 | 2023-02-20 | 뵈린게 이노베이션 에이비이 | Building panels comprising a mineral-based layer |
DE102021118251A1 (en) * | 2021-07-14 | 2023-01-19 | Trumpf Werkzeugmaschinen Gmbh + Co. Kg | Wall element for shielding from laser radiation |
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Also Published As
Publication number | Publication date |
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WO2007103673A1 (en) | 2007-09-13 |
US7446064B2 (en) | 2008-11-04 |
US20070207301A1 (en) | 2007-09-06 |
WO2007103673B1 (en) | 2007-11-15 |
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