WO1997034472A1 - Methods for inducing immune responsiveness in a subject - Google Patents
Methods for inducing immune responsiveness in a subject Download PDFInfo
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- WO1997034472A1 WO1997034472A1 PCT/US1997/004285 US9704285W WO9734472A1 WO 1997034472 A1 WO1997034472 A1 WO 1997034472A1 US 9704285 W US9704285 W US 9704285W WO 9734472 A1 WO9734472 A1 WO 9734472A1
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- cells
- disease
- cell
- blood
- dendritic cells
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Definitions
- the present invention relates to improved methods for inducing an immune response in a subject to cells or tissues, particularly tumor cells and/or T or B-cells that cause an autoimmune disorder.
- the present invention specifically provides methods and compositions for the extracorporeal treatment of blood and for administration of an extracorporeally treated blood mixture to a subject, to induce an immune response to cells or tissues that express a target antigen.
- the methods include using extraco ⁇ oreal treatment agents, such as photochemotherapeutic agents, that increase MHC Class I peptide expression, and using/adding dendritic cells and/or other antigen presenting cells to the extraco ⁇ oreal blood stream during treatment with such agents.
- Immune system responses may be classified as humoral or cell-mediated.
- a humoral response is mediated by B lymphocytes in the form of freely diffusible antibody molecules.
- a cell-mediated response is mediated by specifically reactive lymphocytes, such as T lymphocytes ("T cells").
- T cells react with foreign antigens via surface receptors that are distinctive for each T cell clone.
- the T cell surface receptors generally are composed of two disulfide-linked protein chains having unique amino acid sequences (Edelson, R., Annals of N.Y. Acad. of Sciences 636: 154-164 (1991)). The physical properties of these receptors confer specific binding capabilities and permit each of the several million clones of T cells in an individual to operate independently.
- T cells function in the regulation of an immune response via recognition by the immune system of the T cell surface receptor
- the T cell receptor is capable of recognizing a particular antigen only when it is associated with a surface marker on an antigen presenting cell, such as a dendritic cell
- a surface marker on an antigen presenting cell such as a dendritic cell
- MHC major histocompatibility complex
- Cutaneous T cell lymphoma is an immune system disease that is caused by a massive expansion of a single clone of aberrant T cells.
- Extraco ⁇ oreal photochemotherapy "photopheresis" for the treatment of cutaneous T cell lymphoma has been described (Edelson, R., Scientific American 256(8):68-75 (1988); Edelson, R , supra. (1991)).
- Photopheresis treatment involves isolating the subject's white blood cells (including the T cells), irradiating the cells in the presence of a photoactivatable agent (8-methoxypsoralen, "8-MOP”) and reinfusing the damaged cells.
- a photoactivatable agent (8-methoxypsoralen, "8-MOP”
- the 8-MOP is activated by the ultraviolet light to form a transiently energized molecule capable of photomodifying cellular DNA.
- This therapy reportedly results in selective destruction of the malignant T cell clone. It is believed that exposure of as little as five percent of the members of the malignant T cell clone to the 8-MOP/irradiation treatment, followed by return of the irradiated, damaged cells to the subject, elicits a specific response to the aberrant T cells that is mediated by the T cell surface receptors, i.e., the damaged cells of the malignant clone in effect prime the immune system to specifically destroy the untreated remainder of the aberrant clone Photopheresis also has been used for the treatment of several autoimmune disorders, including pemphigus vulgaris, systemic sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, HIN infection and rejection of transplanted organs.
- compositions for specifically modifying an immune response to a specific antigen include treating an antigen-presenting cell to enhance expression by the cell of empty major histocompatibility complex molecules, followed by reacting the treated antigen presenting cell with an antigen extraco ⁇ oreally in the presence of a photoactivatable agent and irradiation to form an antigen-associated antigen presenting cell.
- methods and pharmaceutical compositions for specifically modifying an immune response to a specific antigen include treating an antigen-presenting cell to enhance expression by the cell of empty major histocompatibility complex molecules, followed by reacting the treated antigen presenting cell with an antigen extraco ⁇ oreally in the presence of a photoactivatable agent and irradiation to form an antigen-associated antigen presenting cell.
- the methods and compositions of the present invention are based on the identification that: 1) current agents used in photopheretic methods to induce an immune response to one or more target antigens are effective because they increase the level of MHC expression in the treated cell, 2) blood, containing disease effector cells, that is extraco ⁇ oreally treated in known photopheretic methods results in the transport of disease associated antigens to the surface of the treated cells as weakly bound antigens to MHC molecules, 3) known photopheretic methods can be substantially improved by adding dendritic cells, or other antigen presenting cells, to the treated blood prior to re-infusion and 4) isolated and cultured dendritic cells can be used to boost a subject's immune system response in most context where an immune system response in desired.
- the present invention provides: 1) methods and pharmaceutical compositions for preparing a disease-associated antigen preparation; 2) methods for inducing an immune response in a subject using extraco ⁇ oreal treatment of blood; 3) methods for augmenting existing extraco ⁇ oreal blood treatment methods, such as photochemical therapy; 4) methods for identifying agents that can be used in the extraco ⁇ oreal treatment of blood; 5) methods to optimize extraco ⁇ oreal blood treatment methods; and 6) methods for augmenting existing immunotherapeutic methods.
- One embodiment of the present invention is based, at least in part, on the discovery that disease-associated antigens contained in unfractionated blood that has been subjected to treatment with an agent that increases MHC Class I expression (such as in photopheresis using a photoactivated chemical), can be presented by exogenously added dendritic cells in vivo to elicit an antigen-specific immune response. More particularly, one embodiment of the invention provides methods and compositions for an improved method for extraco ⁇ oreal blood treatment in which dendritic cells are introduced into the treated blood during the extraco ⁇ oreal treatment, such as during photopheresis. Also provided are methods for inducing immunologic tolerance to autologous or exogenous antigens and compositions useful in suppressing clinically undesirable immunologic reactions.
- Dendritic cells preferably peripheral blood dendritic cells, or other antigen presenting cells
- the cultured dendritic cells can be added to an extraco ⁇ oreal treated blood sample, such as that described above, to increase the degree of immune response obtained.
- cultured dendritic cells can be added in combination with a subunit vaccine to facilitate and increase vaccine presentation.
- cultured dendritic cells can be used as a booster to prolong the effectiveness of methods that rely on the induction of an immune response, such as in photopheresis and vaccination protocols.
- the present invention is further based on the observation that photochemical agents used in photopheresis are effective in photopheretic methods because they increase the level of MHC Class I expression on the treated cells Based on this observation the present invention provides methods for identifying agents for use in extraco ⁇ oreal treatment methods in addition to the presently used photochemical agents Further, this observation provides a means to optimize a treatment protocol by assaying for an increase in MHC Class I expression during agent treatments
- the methods and compositions of the present invention are used to treat a subject that has a disease that is mediated by or is conditioned upon the presence of circulating "disease effector" cells
- disease effector cells include, but are not limited to, T cells, B cells, and/or infected white blood cells, such as virally or bacterially infected cells
- diseases that can be treated using the methods of the present invention include, but are not limited to, leukemia, lymphoma, autoimmune disease, graft versus host disease, and transplanted tissue rejection
- an antigen that mediates the disease state i.e., the "disease-associated antigen"
- an antigen that mediates the disease state is a peptide that is associated with (binds to) an MHC Class I site, an MHC Class II site or, to a heat shock protein that is involved in transporting peptides to/from MHC sites (i.e , a chaperone)
- Other conditions that can be treated using the present methods include condition in which
- an antigen composition for enhancing a cellular immune system response contains disease-associated antigens that have been released from disease effector cells contained in blood and a detectable amount of a treatment agent, such as psoralen or other photoactivatable agent
- the composition is formulated to contain an amount of disease-associated antigens for mixing with a single dose of dendritic cells to form a cellular vaccine.
- a process for producing a product for enhancing an immune response and the product produced thereby involves, (a) acidifying a preparation containing a plurality of disease effector cells for a period of time sufficient for the disease effector cells to release disease-associated antigens without lysing the cells, and (b) neutralizing the acidified preparation to form the product
- beta2- microglobin is added to stabilize the prepared antigens.
- the present invention further provides a titration point for determining when to stop agent treatment during the extraco ⁇ oreal treatment and when to administer the treated blood to a subject
- these methods rely on art known methods to determine the course of MHC expression during the course of agent treatment of the extraco ⁇ oreal blood.
- a treated blood mixture is ready for administration or combining with dendritic cells when an increase in MHC class I expression, as a result of the agent treatment, is observed/detected.
- Figure 1 is a graph that demonstrates the antitumor response of vaccinations against tumor growth using a therapeutic mixture comprising irradiated 2B4 1 1 tumor cells and dendritic cells
- Figure 2 shows the inhibition of tumor growth using dendritic cells (DAPC) alone
- Figure 3 shows the impact of 8-MOP UNA treatment on MHC Class I expression .
- the present invention provides improved methods for use in extraco ⁇ oreal blood treatment for use in inducing an immune response in a subject.
- the improved methods use a synergistic combination of two therapeutic methods, extraco ⁇ oreal treatment of blood with agents that increase MHC Class I expression (such as photopheresis) and dendritic or other antigen presenting cell-mediated immune therapy.
- One embodiment of the present invention relates to the discovery that when combined, these two methods exert a synergistic therapeutic effect in treating a subject that is diagnosed as having a disease state that is mediated by circulating T cells,
- B cells or infected circulating cells such as white blood cells infected by an infectious agent, such as, but not limited to, virus, bacteria, protozoa, etc.
- the methods of the invention comprise the steps of: 1) obtaining blood containing disease effector cells that express one or more disease associated antigens from the subject; 2) obtaining dendritic cells, or other antigen presenting cells, from the subject; 3) treating the blood containing the disease effector cells with an agent that increases MHC Class I expression (extracorporeal blood treatment); 4) introducing the dendritic cells, or other antigen presenting cells, into the treated blood mixture to form a therapeutic mixture; and (5) reinfusing or otherwise introducing the therapeutic mixture into the diseased subject as a mixture of treated cells and dendritic cells or as a vaccine containing purified, antigen loaded dendritic cells.
- the present invention further provides methods for identifying agents that can be used in the methods of the present invention as well as other extraco ⁇ oreal blood treatment methods that are used to induce an immune response to a target antigen. Specifically, it has been found that the effectiveness of photopheresis is potentiated, in part, by the ability of the photochemical agent/treatment to induce MHC expression on the treated cells. The ability to increase MHC expression can be used as an assay point for identifying agents for use in the present method. Further, MHC expression can be used as a titration point for determining the optimum treatment agent/protocol for the present methods.
- the methods of the present invention are useful for treating a diseased subject, i.e., a subject who has been diagnosed as having a disease that is mediated by "disease effector cells,” “circulating aberrant cells,” or “non-circulating disease effector cells,” cells that express an antigen that is associated with a pathological condition, i.e. solid tumor cells.
- disease effector cells or “circulating aberrant cells” refers to cells that (1) are present in peripheral blood (preferably a T cell, a B cell, or a virally or bacterially infected white blood cell), (2) mediate a pathological or disease state and 3) express peptides or proteins that can be used to distinguish them from other similar cells that are not associated with the pathological condition.
- a disease effector cell can be a T-cell that has undergone a transformation to be a tumor cell, a
- non-circulating disease effector cells refers to cells that (1) are not present in peripheral blood (preferably a solid tumor or infected organ), (2) mediate a pathological or disease state and 3) express peptides or proteins that can be used to distinguish them from other similar cells that are not associated with the pathological condition
- a non-circulating disease effector cell can be a solid tumor
- disease effector cells include, but are not limited to, malignant T cells, malignant B cells, T cells or B cells that mediate an autoimmune or transplanted tissue rejection response, virally or bacterially infected white blood cells or tissues that express viral or bacterial proteins/peptides and solid tumor cells
- the disease effector cells will express an antigen
- the agent treatment step of the methods of the present invention damages the disease effector cells to the extent that the agent treated cells increase MHC Class I expression, and/or transport/release disease-associated antigens, but are not immediately lysed or killed
- the transported/released peptides then are passed "baton-fashion" to the dendritic cell major histocompatibility complex molecules, either by entering empty MHC sites or by displacing peptides that are present in the added dendritic cell MHC Class I or Class II sites for presentation
- the methods of the invention are useful for treating diseases such as leukemias, lymphomas, solid tumors, metastatic tumors, autoimmune diseases, transplanted tissue rejection, and graft versus host disease
- the methods of the present invention are useful for treating viral or bacterial conditions including HIV, malaria, etc and other blood borne infections that are mediated by intracellular parasites or other factors, including, e g , listeria, Epstein Barr virus, HTLV- 1
- the methods of the present invention are intended to be used in treating any mammalian subject, so long as the subject is in need of inducing an immune response to disease effector cells
- the methods of the present invention are preferably used to treat humans
- the recipient subject of the methods of the present invention have a competent immune system, as evidenced by, for example, near normal absolute levels of CD8 positive T cells
- the first step used in practicing one aspect of the present invention is to remove blood from a subject that contains disease effector cells as defined above or tissue that contains the non-circulating disease effector cells.
- a variety of methods are known in the art for removing blood containing disease effector cells, for isolating disease effector cells for removed blood, for example by using centrifugation, and for removing non-circulating cells, such as solid tumors Some of these methods are described in detail below
- a skilled artisan can readily adapt any of the blood removal/tissue removal, separation and culturing methods known in the art for use in the present methods to obtain blood containing disease effector cells, a population of disease effector cells that express one or more target antigens, or a population of non- circulating disease effector cells
- the amount of blood or tissue removed will be based primarily on the disorder being treated and the therapeutic protocol that is employed For example, for treating CTCL using a therapeutic protocol calling for from a single injection, to weekly or monthly injection injections of treated cells, approximately from about 200 cc to about 750 cc of blood is removed A skilled artisan can readily determine the amount of blood that needs to be removed for treatment based on the number of disease effector - 11 -
- the blood used in the extraco ⁇ oreal treatment may be removed over a course of several sessions.
- the blood can be removed, treated and re-infused in a continuous process
- For treating a solid tumor as much of the tumor is removed for both therapeutic pu ⁇ oses as well as to provide a source of antigen for dendritic cell loading.
- extraco ⁇ oreal blood treatment refers to the process in which the blood of a diseased subject is removed and is treated with an agent to form an agent-treated blood sample.
- the agent used in the present method can be any agent that will act to increase MHC expression, particularly MHC Class I expression.
- MHC Class I expression For cells that do not express MHC proteins, any agent that leads to an increase in cellular proteolysis can be used.
- the treatment agent may further be an agent that has an affinity for an important component of blood cells or for a particular disease effector cell.
- the agent used in the present method can be, but is not limited to, chemical agents and physical agents
- the agent may be a chemical compound that induces MHC expression and/or cellular proteolysis, such as a photoactivatable drug such as psoralen.
- the agent may be a physical treatment that the blood is subjected to. For example, UV light, heat shock and other environmental stresses have been shown to induce MHC Class I expression in other experimental contexts.
- a skilled artisan can readily identify agents for use in the present methods based on the ability of the agent to induce MHC expression on treated (disease effector) cells.
- Exemplary photoactivatable chemical agents that can be used with the present methods include, but are not limited to, psoralens, po ⁇ hyrins, pyrenes, phthalocyanine, photoactivated cortisone, photoactivated antibodies specifically reactive with the disease effector cells present in the blood, photoactivatable dyes, and monoclonal antibodies which have been linked to po ⁇ hyrin molecules.
- Exemplary non- photoactivated chemical agents include, but are not limited to, chemotherapeutic agents, such as cyclophosphamide or methotrexate, and cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, and interferon-gamma.
- Exemplary non-chemical agents include, but are not limited to, UVA iradiation, X-ray irradiation, gamma-ray iradiation, hydrostatic or other pressure, heat or cold shock and ultrasound.
- the psoralens are a preferred class of photoactivatable agent that are used in current photopheretic methods. Following oral administration, psoralens are absorbed from the digestive tract, reaching peak levels in the blood and other tissues in one to four hours and are excreted almost entirely within 24 hours following oral administration. These agents can alternatively or additionally be added directly to the extraco ⁇ oreal bloodstream.
- the psoralen molecules are inert prior to exposure to irradiation and are transiently activated to an excited state following irradiation.
- the transiently activated psoralen molecules are capable of forming photoaddition products with cellular DNA, proteins, or lipids and generating other reactive species, such as singlet oxygen, which are capable of modifying other cellular components, e.g., cell membrane and cytoplasmic components such as proteins and aromatic amino acids.
- other agents such as mitomycin C and cis-platinum compounds also damage DNA by cross ⁇ linking strands of the nucleic acid, such alternative agents remain in an active state following reinfusion, cause systemic adverse effects and thus are not as desirable as psoralens for achieving the pu ⁇ oses of the invention.
- the preferred psoralens include 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP), 4' aminomethyl-
- the treatment of the blood or purified disease effector cells with the treatment agent can be done, as is known in the art, on a continuous stream of blood or in a batch wise manner. Continuous extraco ⁇ oreal treatment can be divided into five stages: (1) blood collection; (2) centrifugation; (3) agent treatment; (4) cell pooling and (5) reinfusion.
- agent treatment method used will be based primarily on the disorder being treated, the agent used and the facilities that are available.
- the agent can be present within or on the surface of the cells of the blood sample This is typically accomplished by administering the agent to the subject prior to obtaining the blood for extraco ⁇ oreal treatment or by injecting the agent directly into the extraco ⁇ oreal blood stream when using a continuous stream treatment method.
- treatment of the extraco ⁇ oreal blood leads to an increase in MHC Class I expression and allows for an increase in the rate and extent that antigens are transported and bound (weakly) to surface MHC molecules.
- antigens then become available for presentation by dendritic or other antigen presenting cells, which are added to the blood sometime prior to reinfusion.
- Dendritic Cells Addition The extraco ⁇ oreal treatment methods of the present invention rely on the use of dendritic cells, or other antigen presenting cells, in combination with the extraco ⁇ oreal agent treatment. Dendritic cells, or other antigen presenting cells, are added directly or indirectly to the blood containing the disease effector cells to form a therapeutic mixture comprising agent treated disease effector cells and added dendritic cells prior to re-infusion into the subject. Dendritic cells are added to the blood or purified disease effector cells (before or after agent treatment) in an amount sufficient to enhance the immune system response of the subject to the one or more disease-associated antigens.
- the amount of dendritic cells contained in a single dose to achieve this pu ⁇ ose is approximately 1 million cells, but can range from about one thousand cells to about one hundred million cells per dose.
- larger numbers of dendritic cells can be prepared and introduced into the treated blood to obtain multiple doses of antigen-loaded and non-antigen loaded dendritic cells.
- these cell numbers are consistent with the cell numbers described in Zitvogel, L., et al, J Exp Med 184:87 -97 (1996) for an animal model in which peptide-loaded dendritic cells were administered to a tumor- challenged mouse to enhance the animal's specific immune system response to a solid tumor.
- Zitvogel, et al. in a weakly immunogenic tumor model, animals were injected three to four times, starting at day 4 or day 8 after tumor establishment and subsequently, every 4 days, with 3-5 x IO 5 dendritic cells pulsed with peptides.
- animals were injected on days 14, 21, and 28 after initial intradermal (i d), tumor inoculation.
- booster immunizations for human subjects are designed to take into consideration the immunological state of the subject in accordance with standard clinical practice.
- the dendritic cells used will be obtained from the subject sometime prior to reinfusion of the treated blood.
- the dendritic cells can be obtained at the same time as the blood is removed for treatment or can be obtained prior to of after blood removal.
- the dendritic cells can be activated in vivo prior to their removal from the subject.
- a variety of method can be used to activate dendritic cells in vivo prior to their removal. For example, activation can be accomplished by administering a sufficient dosage of GM-CSF to the subject prior to removing of the dendritic cells.
- a "sufficient dosage of GM-CSF” is the amount and frequency of administration of GM-CSF that is sufficient to increase the number and/or activation state of the dendritic cells in the subject.
- Exemplary dosages of GM-CSF for increasing the number and/or activation state of the subject's dendritic cells are provided in the Examples (see, “Isolation of Dendritic Cells from Human Blood”).
- the steps of the present method comprise: 1) administering GM-
- GM-CSF GM-CSF to the subject prior to removal of dendritic cells
- the dosage of GM-CSF is sufficient to increase the number and/or activation state of the dendritic cells in the subject
- 2) obtaining blood containing disease effector cells that express one or more disease associated antigens from the subject 2) obtaining blood containing disease effector cells that express one or more disease associated antigens from the subject; 3) obtaining and culturing, in vitro, dendritic cells, or other antigen presenting cells, from the subject; 4) treating the blood containing the disease effector cells with an agent that increases MHC Class I expression (extraco ⁇ oreal blood treatment); 5) introducing the dendritic or other antigen presenting cells into the treated blood mixture to form a therapeutic mixture; and (6) reinfusing or otherwise introducing the therapeutic mixture into the diseased subject.
- the isolated dendritic cells can be introduced at any stage during the extracorporeal treatment process: (1) during the blood or tissue collection step;
- the dendritic cells can be introduced to the treated blood/tissue before, during, or after agent treatment.
- the advantage of introducing the dendritic cells during the blood collection stage is that a high dendritic cell concentration can be achieved by adding the dendritic cells directly to the blood collection bag.
- centrifugation procedures are used to separate blood into plasma, white blood cell and red blood cell components it is not 100% efficient and some dendritic cells may enter the plasma and/or red blood cell fractions and not be proximal to the antigens immediately upon their release from the agent treated cells in the white blood cell fraction.
- centrifugation forces alone, or in combination with agent treatment, such as during irradiation in the presence of a photoactivatable agent, facilitates the release and transfer of disease-associated antigens from the disease effector cells by increasing contact between the dendritic cells and the disease effector cells.
- introducing the dendritic cells during centrifugation advantageously places the released disease-associated antigens in close proximity to the added dendritic cells, thereby facilitating transfer of the released peptides from the disease effector cells to the MHC sites of the dendritic cells and, presumably, minimizing enzymatic digestion of the released peptides.
- the dendritic cells can be introduced into the treated blood/tissue during the agent treatment stage.
- the agent treatment stage of photopheresis is performed by passing the disease effector cell containing fraction through an irradiation exposure field that is positioned between opposing irradiation sources. Introducing the dendritic cells during the irradiation stage places the dendritic cells in close proximity to the disease effector cells at the time of their irradiation, thereby facilitating transfer of the released peptides to the dendritic cells and minimizing enzymatic digestion.
- the dendritic cells can be added prior to agent treatment and are then treated along with the disease effector cells.
- agent treatment of the dendritic cells i.e., the photopheretic irradiation of the dendritic cells in the presence of a photoactivatable agent
- cytokines e.g., LL-12, LFN- gamma, TNF-alpha, GM-CSF, IL-3
- the dendritic or other antigen presenting cells can be added to the blood administration bag prior to reinfusing the agent treated disease effector cells.
- Methods for introducing the dendritic or other cells at any stage in the treatment process are based on conventional procedures and can be readily adapted for adding dendritic cells into a treated blood preparation.
- conventional intravenous tubing connections provide access ports through which the dendritic cells can be injected into, for example, the blood collection bag, the centrifugation apparatus, the tubing located in the agent/irradiation treatment chamber and the blood re-infusion bag. Additional reagents, such as cytokines, also can be introduced via these same infusion ports.
- the dendritic or other antigen presenting cells can be added directly or indirectly to the blood or tissue.
- direct addition refers to adding the dendritic cells directly to the blood or tissues (before or after treatment) under condition in which there can be direct cell-to-cell contact between the added dendritic cells and the disease effector cells.
- indirect addition refers to adding dendritic cells to the blood or tissues (before or after treatment) such that the dendritic cells do not come into direct contact with the disease effector cells.
- a filter membrane, dialysis membrane or other partitioning membrane can be placed in between the dendritic cells and the disease effector cells.
- Such a partition acts to allow the transfer of disease associated antigens to the dendritic cells but does not allow mixing of the cell types.
- the preferred partitions will have a pour size of no greater than about 6 microns since this is the approximate size of the small cell that would need to be prevented from passing through the partition.
- the pour size must be large enough to allow passage of antigens and other cytokines released from the treated disease effector cells.
- the treated cells can be remove from the treatment solution, for example by centrifugation, leaving released diseased associated antigens, and the dendritic cells can be added to the resulting cell free solution Indirect addition is preferred in most methods because it avoids potential problems that may be associated with reintroduction of treated disease effector cells to a subject
- the dendritic cells preferably are obtained from peripheral blood but may be obtained from bone marrow, lymph nodes, infiltrated tumors and/or rejected organs
- the dendritic cells should be "genetically identical" to the cells of the subject
- the dendritic cells of the invention are preferably autologous cells being obtained from the subject or an identical twin of the subject, or are genetically engineered to be recognized as an autologous cell by the subject's immune system
- autologous cells being obtained from the subject or an identical twin of the subject
- genetically engineered to be recognized as an autologous cell by the subject's immune system Theoretically it is possible to isolate large numbers of dendritic cells from peripheral blood (e g , by an affinity method in which the dendritic cells are specifically absorbed from the blood and concentrated), for example see Radmayer et al. Int. J.
- the dendritic cells be cultured in vitro to expand their number prior to introducing the cells to the treated extraco ⁇ oreal blood stream
- the cultured dendritic cells have the same or greater presentation characteristics (i e., the number and type of MHC molecules) on their surfaces a naturally-occurring dendritic cells that have been freshly isolated from the subject
- the dendritic cells can be altered, for example, by increasing the number of empty Class I or Class I sites on the surface of the cell, prior to introducing the cells to the treated blood This may be accomplished in accordance with the methods disclosed in PCT application number US93/11220, publication number WO 94/11016, entitled “Specific Immune System Modulation” (Edelson, R et al).
- culturing dendritic cells provides a source of dendritic cells that can be used for booster inoculations
- Numerous references have described culturing dendritic cells, contacting the cultured dendritic cells with a purified antigen to form an antigen-loaded dendritic cell and administering the antigen-loaded dendritic cell to an animal to enhance a specific immune response to the antigen
- Steinman et al. (PCT/US93/03141, publication no WO 93/20185) disclose a method for producing proliferating cultures of dendritic antigen presenting cell (DAPC) precursors The method involves isolating the precursors and culturing the precursors in the presence of a cytokine.
- DAPC dendritic antigen presenting cell
- Steinman et al report that GM-CSF is an essential cytokine for dendritic cell culturing in vitro. Accordingly, Steinman et al. recommend administration of GM-CSF to a subject prior to sampling the subject's blood to obtain dendritic cell precursors for proliferation in vitro. Steinman et al. further report that the cultured, immature dendritic cells can be pulsed with antigen in vitro and will phagocytose the antigen and process it into a form which is presented on the dendritic cell surface, i.e., the Steinman dendritic cells must phagocytose the antigen for proper antigen presentation in Class II.
- the Steinman method involves (a) providing a tissue source (e.g., blood, bone marrow) containing dendritic cell precursors; (b) treating the tissue source to increase its proportion of dendritic cell precursors to obtain a population of cells which is suitable for culture in vitro (e.g., by contacting the tissue source with GM-CSF); (c) culturing the tissue source on a substrate and in a culture media containing GM- CSF, or a biologically active derivative of GM-CSF, to obtain proliferating nonadherent cells and cell clusters; (d) subculturing the nonadherent cells and cell cultures to produce cell aggregates comprising proliferating dendritic cell precursors; and (e) serially subculturing the cell aggregates one or more times to enrich the proportion of dendritic cell precursors.
- a tissue source e.g., blood, bone marrow
- treating the tissue source to increase its proportion of dendritic cell precursors to obtain
- Mature dendritic cells are produced from the proliferating cell cultures by continuing to culture the dendritic cell precursors for a period of time sufficient to allow these cells to mature into mature dendritic cells.
- Mature dendritic cells are identified by cell markers such as, for example, high MHC Class II, 2A1 positive granules, and interdigitating cell (NLDC) antigen.
- NLDC interdigitating cell
- a prefe ⁇ ed embodiment of the instant invention involves introducing mature dendritic cells into the treated blood to form disease-associated antigen-loaded dendritic cells.
- the dendritic cells of the instant invention be in an immature state and capable of phagocytosis to present the disease- associated antigens of the invention.
- Dendritic cells are cultured in the presence of GM-CSF, LL-4 and fibroblast growth factor at a concentration that is sufficient to promote the survival and proliferation of the dendritic cell precursors. This amount depends on the amount of competition from other cells (e.g., macrophages ad granulocytes) for the GM-CSF, etc., as well as on the presence of GM-CSF, etc., inactivators in the cell population In general, dendritic cells are cultured in the presence of between about 1 and 1,000 U/ml of GM-CSF. More preferably, dendritic cells that are obtained from blood are cultured in the presence of GM-CSF at a concentration of between about 30 and 800 U/ml.
- the GM-CSF concentration is between about 400-800 U/ml for culturing proliferating human dendritic cells from blood. Higher concentrations of GM-CSF (e.g., between 500-1,000 U/ml) are preferred for culturing dendritic cells obtained from bone marrow.
- the GM-CSF may be isolated from natural sources, produced using the recombinant DNA techniques or prepared by chemical synthesis. "GM-CSF" is defined as any bioactive analog, fragment or derivative of the naturally occurring (native) GM-CSF. This definition includes fragments and derivatives of GM-CSF provided that the fragments or derivatives promote the proliferation and culture of dendritic cell precursors and, in addition, can be identified by their ability to bind to GM-CSF receptors on the appropriate cell types.
- cytokines may be optionally included in the culture medium to further increase the yield of dendritic cells.
- cytokines include such cytokines as LL-4 (at approximately the same U/ml as GM-CSF (See, e.g., L. Zitvogel, et al, J Exp Med 183:87-97 (1996)); LL-1 alpha and beta (1-100 LAF U/l); TNF- ⁇ (5-500 U/m); LL-3 (25-500 U/ml); monocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF, 100-1,000 U/ml), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF, 25-300 U/ml); stem cell factor (SINGLE-CHAIN FORMS, 10-100 ng/ml); IL-6 (10-100 ng/ml); and FGF (lng-500 U/ml). TNF ⁇ at concentrations from about 10-50 U/ml reportedly increases dendritic cell yields several
- a panel of monoclonal antibodies may be used to identify and characterize the cells in the GM-CSF-expanded cultures to ensure that they are dendritic or other antigen presenting cells.
- Antibodies that are suitable for identifying mature dendritic cells include, but are not limited to: (1) those which bind to the MHC Class I antigen (Ml/42 anti-MHC Class I, ATCC number TLB 126); (2) those which bind to the MHC Class II antigen, B21-2 anti-MHC Class II, ATCC number TLB 229), (M5/114 anti- MHC Class II, ATCC number TLB 120); (3) those which bind to heat-stable antigen (Ml/69 anti-heat stable antigen, HSA, ATCC number TLB 125); (4) 33D1 anti- dendritic cell antibodies, ATCC number TLB 227; (5) those which bind to the interdigitating cell antigen (NLDC 145 anti-interdigitating cell, Kraal, G., et al, J
- Additional antigens that are expressed by dendritic cells that can be used to identify mature dendritic cells include CD44 (identified with monoclonal antibody 2D2C), and CDl lb (identified with monoclonal antibody Ml/70).
- CD44 identified with monoclonal antibody 2D2C
- CDl lb identified with monoclonal antibody Ml/70.
- immature dendritic cells also can be pulsed with the disease-associated antigen preparations of the invention.
- contacting the mature or immature dendritic cells in vitro with the antigen preparations of the instant invention results in a composition containing antigen-loaded dendritic cells in which the antigen is presented on the surface of the dendritic cells.
- the mature dendritic cells present antigen by loading the (released, disease-associated) antigen directly into the empty MHC sites or, altematively, by exchanging the disease-associated antigens for peptides that already are present in the MHC sites of the mature dendritic cells.
- the immature dendritic cells present antigen by the foregoing mechanism, as well as by phagocytosing released antigens, processing the released antigens into - 22 -
- the exemplary processing defective cell lines include RMA-S cells of murine origin and 174.CEM T2 cells of human origin (Salter, R D. et al, EMBO J 5:943-949 (1986)).
- RMA-S cells of murine origin and 174.CEM T2 cells of human origin (Salter, R D. et al, EMBO J 5:943-949 (1986)).
- a processing defect in the antigen presenting cells of the invention be complete, provided that the cells express an increased population of cell surface MHC Class I or Class II molecules which are devoid of endogenously processed peptides.
- Such cells are capable of inducing a primary CTL response when appropriately loaded with MHC Class I binding peptides.
- the antigen presenting cells used in the present methods can also be antigen presenting cells that have been treated with antisense oligonucleotides to inactivate one or more genes responsible for proper antigen processing and presentation at the cell surface.
- This approach increases the number of empty Class I molecules on the antigen presenting cells, thereby making these cells more capable of binding antigenic peptides released from treated disease effector cells.
- dendritic cells or other antigen presenting cells are incubated with antisense oligonucleotides under conditions to permit hybridization of the antisense oligonucleotide to the processing gene or mRNA (e.g., the human TAP-2 gene).
- the TAP genes encode proteins which are necessary for the transport of relevant cytoplasmic peptides to Class I molecules, prior to their joint transport to the cell surface. Therefore, inhibition of the formation of TAP proteins, diminishes filling of Class I molecules with peptides. This circumstance will, hence, increase the amount of surface "empty" Class I.
- Exemplary conditions and oligonucleotides for inactivating the TAP-2 gene in cultured RMA and EL4 cells or freshly isolated splenocytes are provided in Nair, S. et al, J Immunology 156: 1772-1780 (1996). In particular, S. Nair report that MHC Class I expression was decreased in approximately 30% of the cells which had been treated with the AS-1 or AS-2 antisense oligonucleotides.
- oligonucleotides are complementary to two different regions of the TAP-2 mRNA and were synthesized as 25 nucleotide long phosphorothioate derivatives. (See, Nair, S. et al, ibid, for sequence and storage information for these antisense oligonucleotides).
- antigen presenting cells preferably in log phase
- medium e.g., Opti-MEM medium, Life Technologies
- a cationic lipid e.g., Lipofectin (Life Technologies) is used to deliver the antisense oligonucleotides into cells as described by Chiang et al , J Biol Chem 266 : 18162 ( 1991 ) .
- oligonucleotides and Lipofectin are added to medium at the desired concentration (see below) and mixed in a 12 x 75 mm polystyrene tube at room temperature for 20 min.
- the complex is added to the cells to achieve a final concentration of 400 nM oligonucleotide and 15 ⁇ g/ml Lipofectin and incubated at 37°C for 6 to 8 hours.
- the antisense-treated cells are washed, incubated at subphysiologic temperature (preferably in the range 23 to 30°C) for 24 to 48 hours, and analyzed for MHC Class I expression by flow cytometry, used as stimulators for CTL induction using standard procedures (e.g., chromium release assay) and/or used as antigen presenting cells for subsequent presentation in vivo of disease-associated peptides (e.g., by reinfusing or otherwise introducing the antisense-treated cells to the extraco ⁇ oreal blood system or by incubating the antisense-treated cells in vitro with disease-associated peptides and subsequently introducing the peptide-loaded antisense-treated cells to the subject.
- subphysiologic temperature preferably in the range 23 to 30°C
- flow cytometry used as stimulators for CTL induction using standard procedures (e.g., chromium release assay) and/or used as antigen presenting cells for subsequent presentation in vivo of disease-associated peptides (e.g
- the antisense-treated cells are incubated with beta2-microglobulin prior to, or concurrent with, incubating the antisense-treated cells with disease-associated peptides. It is believed that prior treatment or co-incubation of the antisense-treated cells with beta2-microglobulin and disease-associated peptide facilitates loading of the peptides into the empty MHC Class I sites of the antisense-treated antigen presenting cells.
- one or more cDNAs (or gene sequences) encoding the following proteins are introduced (e.g., transfected) into a processing defective cell line (e.g., a T2 cell line) to obtain an improved antigen presenting cell for use in accordance with the methods of the invention: (1) a cytokine(s) (e.g., GM-CSF, LL-12); (2) an accessory molecule such as a costimulatory molecule(s) (e.g., B7-1/CD80 and B7-2/CD86 (Mayordomo, J., et al.
- a cytokine(s) e.g., GM-CSF, LL-12
- an accessory molecule such as a costimulatory molecule(s) (e.g., B7-1/CD80 and B7-2/CD86 (Mayordomo, J., et al.
- an improved dendritic stock cell line can be prepared by introducing one or more cDNAs encoding a cytokine (preferably, GM-CSF) and an accessory molecule (preferably, a B7 and/or ICAM-1 molecule)
- a cytokine preferably, GM-CSF
- an accessory molecule preferably, a B7 and/or ICAM-1 molecule
- the improved dendritic stock cell line can be prepared and maintained in accordance with standard procedures known in the art for introducing and expressing genetic material in mammalian (preferably, human) cells Moreover, in the preferred embodiments, the dendritic stock cell line is used to prepare subject specific antigen presenting cells by, for example, introducing the cDNA encoding the subject's MHC Class I molecules into the stock cell line using standard genetic engineering procedures.
- Such transformed antigen presenting cells are treated (e.g , gamma-i ⁇ adiated) to prevent further cell division prior to administration to the subject
- the amount and nature of irradiation that is sufficient to prevent further cell division is determined empirically by irradiating the cells with a preselected radiation source (e g , gamma-irradiation, 8-MOP and ultraviolet irradiation, X-irradiation, 8-MOP and visible irradiation) over a range of intensities (e.g , 1000 to 3000 rads) for preselected time periods (e.g , 0 5 minutes to 24 hours) and observing whether any clones develop over a period of time, usually a one month period
- the amount and nature of the irradiation is selected which is sufficient to prevent any clones from developing during this time period
- 2000 rads of gamma-irradiation reportedly is sufficient to achieve this pu ⁇ ose (See, e.g ,
- dendritic cells which have been loaded with disease-associated antigens preferably are irradiated (e.g., with gamma-irradiation or within the extraco ⁇ oreal stream during photopheresis) prior to reintroduction (e.g., i.v. infiision) to the subject to prevent in vivo processing and undesired presentation by the dendritic cells of autologous (non-disease-associated) peptides (e.g., peptides which could mediate an autoimmune response) following administration to the subject.
- autologous (non-disease-associated) peptides e.g., peptides which could mediate an autoimmune response
- the methods of the invention optionally include the step of introducing the dendritic cells to the treated blood in the presence of one or more of the following cytokines, GM-CSF, LL-4, TNF- ⁇ and LL-12.
- a TNF- ⁇ and/or LL-12 are introduced with the dendritic cells to the treated blood or at some stage prior to reinfusion.
- a sample of the therapeutic mixture may be taken and assayed to determine, for example, the number of viable dendritic cells and/or the number of disease-associated antigen-loaded dendritic cells, using the markers listed above.
- the number of viable dendritic antigen presenting cells can be determined.
- the number of viable dendritic cells can be determined in accordance with standard practice, e.g., by trypan blue exclusion assay.
- the number of antigen-loaded dendritic cells can be determined, for example, using a cytotoxic T cell assay as described in PCT publications WO 94/02156 or WO 94/21287.
- Alternative procedures for assessing the viability and/or functional activity of the dendritic cells are known to those of ordinary skills in the art and can be performed using routine experimentation. See, e.g., PCT publications WO 93/20185, WO 93/03766, WO 95/29698, WO 94/02156, WO 94/20127, WO 91/13632, WO 95/28479, WO 94/21287 and CA patent application 2,069,541.
- the mixture can be re- infused into the subject as a treated dendritic cell/treated cell mixture or can be further processed to obtain isolated, antigen-loaded dendritic cells.
- the former provides an efficient method that can further provide an additional source of disease cell antigen (i.e. the agent treated disease cell antigens), while the later removes potentially viable disease effector cells.
- Re-isolating the dendritic cells prior to reinfusion provides a means for obtaining multiple re-infusion doses and a source of antigen-loaded dendritic cells that can be used for immunotherapy.
- the peptide-loaded dendritic cells generated by contacting dendritic cells with agent treated blood can be used as an immunogen by administering the cells to a subject in accordance with methods known in the art for eliciting an immune response.
- the dendritic cells are injected into the same individual from whom the source cells were obtained.
- the injection site may be subcutaneous (s.c), intraperitoneal (i.p.), intramuscular (i.m ), intradermal (i d ), or intravenous (i.v ). Intravenous administration of the antigen-loaded dendritic cell is the preferred route of administration.
- the number of antigen-loaded dendritic cells that are administered to the subject varies as a function of the antigen, the immune status of the subject the size of the subject and the disease that is treated.
- blood is used as the tissue source and preferably, the subject is first treated with cytokine to stimulate hematopoiesis.
- the precursors are contacted with the antigen preparations made from agent treated disease effector cells and/or alternatively are stimulated by cytokines (e.g., GM-CSF) to maturity before introducing the antigen.
- cytokines e.g., GM-CSF
- the antigen-loaded dendritic cells are reintroduced to the subject in sufficient quantity to invoke an immune response.
- between lxl 0 6 and lOxlO 6 dendritic cells constitute a single dose for injection into the subject.
- dendritic cells for between ten and one-hundred doses, from about 1x10 s to about lxl 0 9 dendritic cells are introduced into the extraco ⁇ oreal blood sometime prior to, during or following agent treatment.
- the dendritic cells either process (phagocytose) the disease-associated antigens and present the processed antigen in association with MHC Class I or II molecules or directly load the disease-associated antigens into MHC Class I or II molecules.
- these antigen-loaded dendritic cells are pooled during the final stage of the extraco ⁇ oreal treatment and prior to re ⁇ infusion.
- the pooled dendritic cells, with or without the treated disease effector cells can be stored for subsequent booster immunizations.
- these pooled antigen- loaded dendritic cells and other treated disease effector cells are distributed in aliquots prior to storage, each aliquot containing an amount of dendritic cells sufficient for a single dose for injection into the subject.
- the cells can be stored in accordance with standard methods to retain cell viability.
- the cells are stored at -70°C.
- non-antigen loaded dendritic cells can be used for one or more booster inoculations for subjects that are being treated by the methods of the present invention, are being treated by other methods in which it is desired to elicit an immune response (for example during routine vaccination protocols) or are in need of an increase in immune activity (for example to inhibit tumor cell growth).
- isolated or cultured dendritic cells that have not been contacted with treated disease effector cells can be introduced into a subject as a means for increasing cellular and humoral immune responses.
- the dendritic cells are treated with an agent in a manner analogous to the treatment described for the disease effector cells.
- dendritic cells that are treated with a photochemical agent greatly reduced or eliminated tumor growth in an animal model without needing to contact the dendritic cell with a treated disease effector cell or disease associated antigen
- antigen compositions for enhancing an immune system response are disclosed
- the antigen compositions have in common a plurality of disease-associated antigens that have been released from disease effector cells contained in blood by extraco ⁇ oreal agent treatment as herein described
- the compositions optionally contain a detectable amount of one or more protease or peptidase inhibitors
- protease or peptidase inhibitors and compositions containing the same include (1) a mixture containing bestatin (30 uM), thio ⁇ han (10 uM) and captopril (10 uM),
- phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (a serine protease inhibitor), (3) n-ethylmaleimide and various nonseiective peptidase inhibitors (e g , EDTA, o-phenanthroline, bacitracin), (4) benzamidine (2x IO 2 mol/L), (5) a mixture of peptidase inhibitors including amastatin, captopril, phosphoramidon), (6) a mixture of peptidase inhibitors such as actinonin (6 uM), a ⁇ hamenine B (6 uM), bestatin (10 uM), captopril (10 uM) and thirophan (0 3 uM); and (7) one or more of the protease inhibitors that are useful for treating HIV infection (e.g , ritonavir, saquinavir, indinovir)
- HIV infection e.g , ritonavir, saquina
- the antigen compositions of the invention can be preserved at reduced temperatures (e.g , frozen to prevent bacterial growth) or altematively, can be lyophilized for prolonged storage
- the antigen compositions are formulated to contain an amount of disease-associated antigens for mixing with a single dose of dendritic cells
- each dendritic cell contains approximately 100,000 MHC sites for binding to antigenic peptides. Accordingly, a single dose of dendritic cells is introduced into an excess of disease-associated antigens to drive the reaction to completion, i e , to ensure that as many disease-associated antigens as possible are loaded onto the MHC sites of the dendritic cells.
- a sufficient number of disease- associated antigens are allowed to react with each dendritic cell to fill between 300 and 300,000 Class I sites and thereby elicit a specific immune system response to the presented antigen. It is well known that as few as three hundred MHC sites occupied by a particular antigenic peptide are sufficient to elicit an immune response. In general, this is accomplished by incubating the eluate from ten-fold to one hundred-fold disease effector cells with one-fold number of dendritic antigen presenting cells.
- an alternative process for producing an antigen product for use in enhancing an immune response involves two steps: (a) acidifying a preparation containing a plurality of disease effector cells for a period of time sufficient for the disease effector cells to release disease-associated antigens without immediately lysing the cells; and (b) neutralizing the acidified preparation to form the product.
- the disease effector cells are obtained from peripheral blood and include, for example, malignant T cells, malignant B cells, T cells or B cells which mediate an autoimmune response, T cells or B cells which mediate transplanted tissue rejection, and virally, bacterially or protozoally infected disease effector cells which express on their surface viral, bacterial or protozoan proteins and/or peptides.
- the disease effector cells express on their surface an antigen that is associated with (bound to) an MHC Class I protein, an MHC Class II protein or a heat shock protein that is capable of transporting peptide to or from an MHC site.
- the disease effector cells are isolated from peripheral blood prior to acidification.
- the disease effector cells are T cells or B cells. More preferably, the disease effector cells are T cells, preferably within a single family. In the most preferred embodiments, the T cells are of a single clone.
- the acidification step of the foregoing process is based upon published procedures. See, e.g., Storkus, W., et al. , J Immunotherapy 14:94-103 (1993) and L. Zitvogel, et al, J Exp Med 183:87-97 (1996).
- An exemplary protocol for acid eluting antigens from the MHC Class I sites of antigen presenting cells is provided in the Examples.
- the acid elution procedure is performed at room temperature.
- the acidification step involves subjecting the preparation of disease effector cells to a pH of between about pH 2 and pH 6 (preferably between pH2 and pH 4) for between about 0.5 to about 20 minutes.
- acidification involves subjecting the preparation to a pH of about 3.3 for about one minute Thereafter, the cell preparation is neutralized in accordance with standard practice (e.g., by washing pelleted or flask-adherent cells with buffered tissue culture medium), and the eluted peptides preferably are further concentrated (e.g., by chromatography and/or lyophilization) Performing the acidification step under these conditions, results in release by the disease effector cells of their disease-associated antigens without immediately lysing the disease effector cells
- the acid-eluted antigen preparation is divided into aliquots, each aliquot containing an amount of antigen sufficient for mixing with a single dose of dendritic cells to enhance the immune system.
- the aliquots are lyophilized to facilitate storage and shipping.
- incubation of cells a pH 3.3 in citrate-phosphate buffer denatures Class I complexes, resulting in the release of beta2 microglobulin and previously Class I-bound peptides into the extracellular media (Storkus, W., et al (J Immunotherapy 14:94-103 (1993))
- the mild pH treatment does not immediately lyse the disease effector cells, the cells regenerate their Class I peptide complexes in culture, thereby providing a mechanism whereby multiple batches of disease-associated antigens can be harvested from the disease effector cells in culture
- dendritic cells or other antigen presenting cells are subjected to the above-described acid elution/neutralization protocol prior to contacting the cells with the disease-associated antigens
- the MHC molecules of the dendritic cells are emptied of their endogenous peptides prior to exposure to the disease-associated antigens, thereby increasing the number of empty MHC molecules available for association with the disease-associated antigens and rendering the acid-eluted dendritic or other antigen presenting cells more efficient antigen presenting cells, presumably, by providing an increased number of empty MHC sites into which the disease-associated antigens can be loaded
- the above-described acid elution/neutralization protocol also results in release of B2-microglobulin from the MHC molecules.
- the acid-eluted, neutralized antigen presenting cells be incubated with B2- microglobulin prior to, or concurrent with, contacting the cells with disease-associated antigens to increase the efficiency of antigen presentation by the acid-eluted, neutralized antigen presenting cells.
- the acid- eluted, neutralized dendritic cells are contacted with the disease-associated antigens at a temperature that is less than physiological temperature to further stabilize the empty MHC sites of these antigen presenting cells.
- the product is produced by the process of: (a) acidifying a preparation containing a plurality of disease effector cells for a period of time sufficient for the disease effector cells to release disease associated antigens without immediately lysing the cells; and (b) neutralizing the acidified preparation to form the product.
- the disease effector cells are obtained from peripheral blood.
- the product can be an aliquoted product in which each aliquot contains an amount of neutralized product sufficient to mix with a single dose of dendritic cells for administration to a subject to enhance the subject's specific immune system response to the presented antigen.
- PCT/US93/06653 having publication Number WO 94/02156, entitled “Methods for Using Dendritic Cells to Activate T Cells" (Engleman et al, hereinafter "WO 94/02156”) describes methods for isolating dendritic cells from human blood and for using the isolated dendritic cells to present antigens for the induction of an antigen- specific T-cell-mediated immune response. More recently, methods have been reported for the isolation of precursor dendritic cells and their expansion in vitro. For example, PCT Application No.
- PCT US93/03141 having publication Number WO 93/20185, entitled “Method for in vitro Proliferation of Dendritic cell Precursors and their use to produce Immunogens" (Steinman et al, hereinafter WO 9320185) describes methods for isolating dendritic cell precursors from human blood, expanding the isolated cell precursors in vitro in the presence of GM-CSF, and pulsing the expanded cell precursors with peptide antigen in vitro to obtain peptide-loaded dendritic cells that are suitable for inducting an immune system response.
- the following procedures for isolating and culturing dendritic cells/dendritic cell precursors from human peripheral blood are based upon the protocols for culturing such cells that are described in WO 94/02156 and WO 93/20185.
- Approximately IO 6 cells in one ml of culture medium are plated in 16 mm diameter plastic culture wells (Co-star, New York).
- the medium e.g., RPMI- 1640
- typical growth nutrients e.g., 50 uM 2-mercaptoethanol, 10 mM glutamine, 50 ⁇ g/ml gentamicin, 5% serum from cord blood without heat inactivation or 5% fetal calf serum (with inactivation)
- human recombinant GM-CSF preferably 400 U/ml
- serum-free medium that is appropriate for mammalian cell culture can be used.
- the cultures are fed by removing 0.3 ml of the medium and replacing this with 0.5 ml of fresh medium supplemented with the cytokines.
- the cells are cultured n the presence of additional cytokines, such as LL-4, LL-12, LL-1 alpha, TNF alpha, 11-3, FGF and/or LAF.
- additional cytokines are added during the last 24 hours of dendritic cell culturing.
- these same cytokines optionally are added during administration of the antigen-loaded dendritic cells to the subject.
- Characteristic proliferating dendritic cell aggregates (termed "balls" by
- Steinman et al. in WO 93/20185) appear by the fifth day, as evident by examination with an inverted phase contrast microscope.
- the balls expand in size over the course of a week. Some balls appear in the original wells, but typically these do not enlarge to the same extent as the non-adherent wells.
- the wells are subcultured, e.g., one well is split into two or three wells, as cell density increases.
- the first method involves removing cells that are non-adherent and separating the balls from non-balls by 1 g sedimentation. Dendritic cells then are released in large numbers from the balls over an additional one or two days of culture and the mature dendritic cells are isolated from the non-balls by flotation on dense metrizamide as previously described (Freudenthal and Steinman, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:7698-7702 (1990)). Altematively, mature dendritic cells are isolated by harvesting the non-adherent cells when the balls are very large. The cells are then left on ice for 20 minutes, resuspended vigorously with a pipette to disintegrate the balls, and the mature dendritic cells are floated on metrizamide columns.
- GM-CSF reportedly is an essential cytokine for the development of dendritic cell balls.
- TNF alpha at 10-50 U/ml increases dendritic cell yields approximately two ⁇ fold.
- the yield of mature dendritic cells is between 6 to 12xl0 6 cells, representing 40-80 percent of the cells.
- a sufficient number of dendritic cells for achieving the pu ⁇ oses of the invention can be isolated from blood without prior culture (see below, "Isolation of Dendritic Cells from Human Blood").
- dendritic cell progenitors e.g., bone marrow, spleen cells, and fetal or umbilical cord blood
- PCT application number PCTAJS91/01683, publication number WO 91/13632, entitled “Idiotypic Vaccination Against B Cell Lymphoma” (“Hohlen et aU) describes a protocol for isolating dendritic cells from spleen. The Hohlen et al. protocol is based upon the method previously reported by Steinman and Cohen, JExpMed 139:380-397 (1974).
- the procedure described herein is adapted from the isolation and culturing protocols provided in WO 94/02156 (Engleman et al).
- dendritic cells are found in both lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues, the most readily accessible source of dendritic cells in man is peripheral blood, which contains less than about 1 dendritic cell per 100 disease effector cells.
- peripheral blood which contains less than about 1 dendritic cell per 100 disease effector cells.
- a disease effector cell concentrate is prepared in accordance standard leukapheresis practice. In general, approximately two billion disease effector cells are collected during leukapheresis.
- the dendritic cells represent one percent of the total disease effector cell population collected by leukapheresis, approximately 20 million dendritic cells are present in the leukapheresis disease effector cell concentrate. As discussed below, this number of cells is sufficient to perform multiple treatments in accordance with the methods disclosed herein. In addition, further culture of these dendritic cells can be performed to increase further the total number of dendritic cells for therapy. For the in vivo priming of an immune system response, a highly purified dendritic cell population (of at least about 80%, preferably of at least about 90%) is recommended.
- the number of dendritic cells present in blood and, hence, in a leukapheresis disease effector cell concentrate, can be increased by administering one or more agents which stimulate hematopoiesis prior to photopheresis or leukapheresis.
- agents include G-CSF, GM-CSF and may include other factors which promote hematopoiesis.
- the amount of hematopoietic agent to be administered is determined by monitoring the cell differential of subjects to whom the factor(s) are administered.
- dosages of cytokine agents, such as G-CSF and GM-CSF are similar to the dosages of these agents that are administered to treat subjects recovering from treatment with cytotoxic agents.
- GM-CSF or G-CSF is administered for 4 to 7 days at standard doses prior to removal of the source tissue (e.g., blood, bone marrow) to increase the proportion of dendritic cells.
- source tissue e.g., blood, bone marrow
- Exemplary dosages are provided in Steinman et al. (WO 93/20185).
- dosages of G-CSF of 300 ⁇ g daily for 5 to 13 days and dosages of GM-CSF of 400 ⁇ g daily for 4 to 19 days reportedly result in a significant increase in dendritic cell precursors in vivo.
- GM-CSF activates the dendritic cells in vivo, thereby causing the dendritic cells to release their own cytokines which further activate CD8 + cells in vivo.
- cytokines in addition to GM-CSF optionally are coadministered to the subject to facilitate this process.
- human peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes PBML are isolated from blood samples, particularly buffy coat or leukocytes prepared by, for example, aphereses (optional), Ficoll Hypaque gradient centrifugation followed by Percoll density centrifugation.
- the high buoyant density fraction contains the T cells, B cells and dendritic cells, whereas the monocytes are contained in the low buoyant density (LD) fraction.
- LD low buoyant density
- dendritic cells are isolated using procedures which involve repetitive density gradient centrifugation, positive selection, negative selection, or a combination thereof.
- negative selection of dendritic cells can be accomplished by panning using antibodies to remove nondendritic cells to result in a preparation containing approximately 80-90% dendritic cells.
- positive selection can be performed in which affinity chromatography is employed wherein antibodies to dendritic cell surface markers are used as the affinity chromatography ligand to remove dendritic cells from a complex mixture.
- Exemplary antibodies that are useful for negative and/or positive selection are described in WO 94/02156 Briefly, human dendritic cells can obtained from buffy coats using the following procedure.
- PBML Peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes
- Ficoll- Hypaque gradient centrifugation Boya , Scand J Clin Lab Invest 21 :21-29 (1968)
- Blood dendritic cells optionally are further separated by, for example, the methods described in WO 94/02156. (See, in particular, WO 94/02156, Fig. 1, for an overview of the separation process). Briefly, PBML are separated into LD and HD fractions in a four-step discontinuous Percoll gradient (Pharmacia Uppsala, Sweden) (Markowicz and Engleman, J Clin Invest 85:955-961 (1990)).
- the HD fraction containing the dendritic cells is collected and cultured in culture media in Teflon vessels for 16-28 hours at 37°C. Thereafter, the cells are centrifuged over a Nycodenz/Nycopret discontinuous gradient (Nycomed Pharma, Oslo, Norway). The dendritic cells are contained entirely in the LD fraction and occupy approximately 30-40% of the total cell population. This partially purified dendritic cell population can be used for T cell priming and activation experiments in vivo or in vitro. In the preferred embodiments, the dendritic cells are further purified for in vivo applications.
- Further purification of the dendritic cell population is achieved by performing a second round of Nycodenz/Nycoprep centrifugation and collecting the LD fraction obtained therefrom.
- the LD fraction contains approximately 80-90% dendritic cells.
- the LD fraction following the first Nycodenz/Nycoprep step is incubated with antibody-coated petri dishes to remove CD3 + , CD14 + , CDl 6 + , and CD20 + cells to obtain a nonadherent cell population containing between approximately 80-90% dendritic cells.
- these procedures produce a yield of l-2.5xl0 6 cells from about 400-500 ml of whole blood.
- an anti-HLA-DR antibody e.g., an anti-MHC Class II antibody such as
- HLA-DR + CD 14 " cells represent the dendritic cell population
- dendritic cells are readily distinguished from other PBML on the basis of their high levels of expression of MHC-Class II determinants and their lack of CD 14 expression. Further definitive analysis of the cell population is accomplished by determining whether the putative dendritic cells are also negative for a variety of known T cell and B cell markers and are positive for a variety of known dendritic cell markers (discussed above).
- Example 2 Preparation of Disease- Associated Antigens for In Vitro Loading Disease-associated antigens for in vitro loading into dendritic or other antigen presenting cells of the invention are prepared in accordance with procedures known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The procedure described herein is based upon the acid elution protocol described in Zitvogel, L et al. J Exp Med 183 :87-97 (1996). (See also, e.g., Storkus, W. et al J Immunotherapy 14:94-103 (1993) for buffer and reagent preparation for the acid elution procedure).
- HBSS HBSS
- HBSS HBSS
- the cell-free supematant is harvested, and peptides in the acid-extracted supematants are concentrated, e.g., on activated SepPak C18 cartridges (Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA).
- the bound material is eluted with 2-3 ml of 60% acetonitrile in water and lyophilized to near complete dryness (e.g., 20-50 ⁇ l).
- the peptides are then reconstituted in 1 ml HBSS (GLBCO-BRL) and stored frozen (e.g., at -70°C) until loading onto dendritic or other antigen presenting cells of the invention.
- HBSS HBSS
- the loading reaction is performed at a temperature less than physiological temperature (e.g., between about 22°C and 27°C).
- Example 3 Loading Disease- Associated Antigens onto Dendritic Cells
- dendritic cells are introduced into the extraco ⁇ oreal blood stream at any stage during photopheresis. More preferably, the dendritic cells are acid-eluted or agent treated as discussed above prior to introduction to the extraco ⁇ oreal blood stream. Acid elution or agent treatment (such as using 8- MOP/UVA) of the dendritic cells induces release by the cells of peptides that may have become associated with their MHC Class I molecules during cell isolation and/or culture.
- the acid-eluted dendritic cells are introduced to the extraco ⁇ oreal blood stream at a temperature less than physiological temperature (between about 22°C and 27°C) to enhance dendritic cell empty MHC stability and minimize enzymatic antigenic peptide degradation.
- dendritic cells into the extraco ⁇ oreal blood stream is accomplished using standard injection ports (i.e., ports on the intravenous tubing sets) known to those of ordinary skill in the art.
- lxlO 6 and lOxlO 6 dendritic cells constitute a single dose for injection into the subject.
- a number of dendritic cells to support multiple doses e.g., 100-fold the number of cells for a single dose
- this preparation of antigen-loaded dendritic cells is stored in aliquots containing a single dose for re- injection into the subject.
- a single dose of antigen-loaded dendritic cells 300 to 300,000 MHC sites per cell are occupied by disease-associated peptides. More preferably, between about 1000 and 200,000 MHC site per cell are occupied by disease-associated peptides.
- the disease-associated antigens which are present in the extracorporeal blood stream following their release from the disease effector cells are loaded onto the MHC sites of the exogenously added dendritic cells.
- the photopheresis process steps e.g., centrifugation
- the treated blood containing the disease-associated antigen is loaded into the MHC sites of dendritic cells in vitro, as opposed to introducing the cells to the extraco ⁇ oreal blood stream.
- Preparation of the disease-associated antigens by acid elution of disease effector cells is described in Example 2, above
- the antigen compositions of the invention which are useful for this pu ⁇ ose are disease- associated antigens which have been released from disease effector cells that are contained in blood.
- the compositions contain a detectable amount of a photoactivatable agent (e.g., a psoralen), such as the amount that would be present in the blood of a subject who has been subjected to photopheresis therapy.
- a photoactivatable agent e.g., a psoralen
- the composition is prepared by aliquoting the photopheresed blood into portions which contain an amount of disease-associated antigens suitable for mixing with one or more doses of dendritic cells.
- the antigen composition for enhancing an immune response is prepared by acidifying a preparation containing a plurality of disease effector cells (e.g., disease effector cells contained in the extracorporeal blood stream) for a period of time sufficient for the disease effector cells to release the disease- associated antigens without lysing the disease effector cells.
- the preparation is neutralized prior to loading the released antigens onto the MHC sites of the dendritic cells.
- the disease-associated antigens which are prepared in accordance with the methods of the invention are loaded onto dendritic cells in accordance with the procedures described by Steinman et al. (WO 93/20185). Briefly, dendritic cells prepared as described above are plated at a concentration of approximately lxlO 5 cells per well of a 24-well plastic culture plate. For antigen preparations in which the peptides are intended to be directly loaded into the MHC sites (without phagocytosis), mature dendritic cells are prefe ⁇ ed.
- the cells are incubated and culture medium (e.g., RPMI 1640) preferably containing additional nutrients (e.g., 5% fetal calf serum), and GM-CSF (preferably at 30 U/ml).
- additional nutrients e.g., 5% fetal calf serum
- GM-CSF preferably at 30 U/ml.
- the dendritic cells are subjected to acid elution (as described in Example 2, above), washed and placed in an appropriate loading medium at less than physiological temperature prior to contacting the dendritic cells with the disease-associated antigens
- Loading the dendritic cells at a temperature less than physiological temperature enhances empty MHC stability and thereby maximizes the number of MHC sites available for association with the disease- associated antigens. Reduced temperature loading also minimizes the likelihood of enzymatic digestion of the released peptide antigens.
- the disease-associated antigen preparation of the invention is added to the dendritic cell cultures and the cultures are incubated with the antigen for several hours or for sufficient time to allow the dendritic cells to present the antigen in a form which is recognized by T cells
- the cultures are incubated at a temperature less than physiological temperature to maximize the number of empty MHC sites available for antigen loading.
- the cells are collected from the culture, washed extensively and are used to immunize the subject.
- a known control antigen can be included in the preparation as a control and a portion of the collected cells can be devoted to a quality control assay to determine (1) the viability of the dendritic cells and/or (2) the functional activity of the antigen-loaded dendritic cells with respect to their ability to induce an antigen-specific immune response in vitro (e.g., a cytotoxic T cell assay) or in vivo.
- the peptide-loaded dendritic cells can be injected subcutaneously into a mouse in an amount sufficient to induce an immune response to the known control antigen to estimate the efficiency of antigen loading for the tested cells.
- the antigen-loaded dendritic cells are irradiated (3000 rads gamma irradiation) before injection (preferably, i.v., or i d. injection).
- the antigen-loaded dendritic cells are coadministered with one or more cytokines (e.g., GM-CSF, LL-12, LL-4) to further enhance a specific immune response to the disease-associated antigen.
- cytokines e.g., GM-CSF, LL-12, LL-4
- cytotoxic activity of the peptide-loaded dend ⁇ tic cells can be determined in a cytotoxic T cell assay, e g , a chromium release assay, using target cells that express the appropriate MHC molecule, in the presence and absence of the disease-associated peptide or other known peptide control that is known to be capable of loading onto dendritic cells and invoking a cytotoxic T cell response in vitro (See, e g , WO 94-20127 and Zitvogel, L , et al, J Exp Med 183 87-97 (1996)) Zitvogel, et al.
- the Zitvogel animal model is adapted for use in the current invention to further optimize the procedures for obtaining the disease-associated antigens of the invention, loading these antigens into the MHC sites of the dendritic or other antigen presenting cells of the invention and selecting the optimum dose and booster frequency for the subject
- increased serum levels of CD4 + and/or CD8 + T cells are used as indicator(s) of disease inhibition
- Cell viability is determined by the exclusion of trypan blue dye by live cells Cells are tested for the presence of endotoxin and for bacterial or fungal contamination by conventional methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art Cells which have passed these safety and activity criteria are washed and placed in the appropriate solution (e g , an infusion solution such as Ringer/glucose lactate for i v infusion) and administered to the subject Additional methods for pulsing dendritic cells with antigen and/or procedures for using antigen-loaded dendritic cells to induce a cytotoxic T cell response in vitro or m vivo are described in WO 93/20185, WO 94/21287, WO 94/02156, Mayordomo, J et al, Nature Medicine 1(12) 127-1302 (1995), and Hsu, F et al, Nature Medicine 2(1) 52-58 (1996) See, also, WO 94-21287, WO 94-20127 and Hsu, F et al, Nature Medicine 2(1)
- Example 4 Demonstrated Efficacy of Photopheresis/Dendritic Cell Treatment
- murine 2B4 11 tumorigenic T cells were treated as described above using 8-MOP and UVA
- the 2B4 11 tumor cells were derived by hybridizing or combining two original cell types normal AKR mouse T cell* with a BW5147 mouse malignant T cells
- the AKR parental cell provides specific antigens, including a T cell receptor, which can apparently serve as a tumor specific antigen, to be targeted by an induced anti-tumor immunologic reaction
- the BW5147 parental cell contribution permits the 2B4 1 1 cells to act like a cancer cell, dividing without check until they kill the animal
- Two groups of 5 test mice were vaccinated with 5 million 2B4 11 cells that had been inactivated with 8-MOP/UVA treatment and mixed with dendritic cells (DP AC)
- the 8-MOP/UVA irradiated tumorigenic cells were shaken overnight with 200,000 dendritic cells (a 25 to 1 ratio), to maximize cell-to-cell contact between the DAPCs and the 2B4 1 1 cells
- One group of cells irradiated 2B4 1 1 plus DAPCs
- the other group of cells was incubated at 37° C, to maximize normal cellular metabolism
- the combined irradiated 2B4 11/DAPC cell mix was injected into the test mice one week prior to challenging the animals with viable, tumorigenic 2B4 11 cells
- mice Of the vaccinated mice, all ten (both groups that received DAPCs) developed tumors that grew more slowly than those in the control mice, or did not grow at all. Three of the mice receiving the 23 °C cell mix and two of the mice receiving the 37°C cell mix did not grow tumors at all. The other two mice in the 23°C group had small tumors which stopped enlarging after day 1 1. One of the other mice in the 37°C group also had a very small tumor which stopped growing by day 11. Of great interest, two of the other mice in the 37°C group developed small, slowly growing tumors, which then completely resolved.
- the Figure 1 demonstrates that the combination of genetically identical dendritic antigen presenting cells (DAPCs) plus 8-MOP/UVA pretreated murine 2B4.11 tumorigenic T cells constitutes an effective vaccine against the specific tumor. (It has previously been shown that inoculation of mice with the tumorigenic 2B4.11 cells kills the mice within 40 days, unless the animals have been successfully vaccinated against the tumor).
- the antigen loaded dendritic cells can be isolated following mixing. Further, a membrane partition, for example a .45 micron filter, can be place between the dendritic cells and the disease effector cells to allow passage of the antigens to the dendritic cells but keeps the two cell population separated.
- Example 5 Demonstrated Efficacy of Dendritic Cell Therapy
- Figure 2 shows results that demonstrate the impact of exogenously supplied dendritic antigen presenting cells, that are supplied without prior contact with treated disease effector cells, on tumor growth.
- Large tumors grew in control animals, with initial appearance of tumor on day 7 and continuous enlargement through the observation period to day 28.
- Vaccination with DAPCs cultured ovemight at either 23 °C or 37°C prevented tumor growth, respectively, in 4 and 3 mice out of both groups of 5, and reversed initial limited growth in the remaining tumors.
- This effect is substantial, but does not lead to the specific immunologic memory which follows vaccination with the 2B4.11/DAPC mix shown in the Figure 1.
- the 2B4.11/DAPC mix shown in the Figure 1.
- Example 6 Demonstrated Increase in MHC Expression Following Photopheresis
- Figure 3 shows the impact of 8-MOP/UVA on Class I expression.
- Mean fluorescence channel quantifies the amount of Class I protein on the cell surface, as identified with a fluorescent antibody against the Class I protein. Normally, at least 200,000 Class I molecules are displayed, as shown by a value of 2.4 in the control cell population.
- 8-MOP/UVA (1 joule per cm2 UVA and 200 ng/ml of 8-MOP) and overnight incubation, Class I expression doubles. Since this massive increase in Class I expression is prevented by emetine, it results from new protein synthesis.
Abstract
Description
Claims
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AU23315/97A AU2331597A (en) | 1996-03-22 | 1997-03-18 | Methods for inducing immune responsiveness in a subject |
JP9533616A JP2000508628A (en) | 1996-03-22 | 1997-03-18 | Methods for inducing an immune response in a subject |
EP97916046A EP0896506A4 (en) | 1996-03-22 | 1997-03-18 | Methods for inducing immune responsiveness in a subject |
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Cited By (12)
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EP1030909A1 (en) * | 1998-09-11 | 2000-08-30 | KOHN, Leonard D. | Immune activation by double-stranded polynucleotides |
WO2000062818A1 (en) | 1999-04-20 | 2000-10-26 | Richard Leslie Edelson | Differentiation of monocytes into functional dendritic cells |
WO2001043772A2 (en) * | 1999-12-16 | 2001-06-21 | Laser- Und Medizin-Technologie Gmbh | Method and device for producing an autologous immunization vaccine against cancerous diseases (tumour vaccine) |
US6355238B1 (en) | 1992-11-18 | 2002-03-12 | Yale University | Specific immune system modulation |
EP1427462A1 (en) * | 2001-08-13 | 2004-06-16 | Richard L. Edelson | Method for inducing selectively suppressed immune response |
US7109031B2 (en) | 1999-04-20 | 2006-09-19 | Yale University | Methods for inducing the differentiation of monocytes into functional dendritic cells and immunotherapeutic compositions including such dendritic cells |
DE10053783B4 (en) * | 2000-07-10 | 2007-06-14 | Eppendorf Ag | Method for modifying dendritic cells |
US7402307B2 (en) * | 1998-03-31 | 2008-07-22 | Geron Corporation | Method for identifying and killing cancer cells |
US7727523B2 (en) | 2001-08-13 | 2010-06-01 | Yale University | Method for suppressing immune system response to transplanted tissue or cells |
US8313945B2 (en) | 1999-04-20 | 2012-11-20 | Yale University | Methods for inducing the differentiation of blood monocytes into functional dendritic cells |
US8524495B2 (en) | 2007-05-16 | 2013-09-03 | Yale University | Methods for inducing the differentiation of blood monocytes into functional dendritic cells |
WO2022125339A3 (en) * | 2020-12-07 | 2022-08-25 | The Trustees Of Indiana University | Methods to sensitize cancer cells to immune attack using atractylenolide i |
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EP1592441B1 (en) * | 2003-02-06 | 2012-04-11 | Aduro Biotech | Listeria attenuated for entry into non-phagocytic cells, vaccines comprising the listeria, and methods of use thereof |
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WO1995034638A1 (en) * | 1994-06-14 | 1995-12-21 | The Board Of Trustees Of Leland Stanford Junior University | Methods for in vivo t cell activation by antigen-pulsed dendritic cells |
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- 1997-03-18 CA CA002249412A patent/CA2249412A1/en not_active Abandoned
- 1997-03-18 EP EP97916046A patent/EP0896506A4/en not_active Withdrawn
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WO2001043772A2 (en) * | 1999-12-16 | 2001-06-21 | Laser- Und Medizin-Technologie Gmbh | Method and device for producing an autologous immunization vaccine against cancerous diseases (tumour vaccine) |
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JP2000508628A (en) | 2000-07-11 |
CA2249412A1 (en) | 1997-09-25 |
EP0896506A4 (en) | 2003-06-18 |
EP0896506A1 (en) | 1999-02-17 |
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