SILICEOUS ROCKS AND PREHISTORY BIBLIOGRAPHY ON GEO-ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO CHERT SOURCING AND PREHISTORIC EXPLOITATION Christophe Delage Department of Anthropology University of California, Santa Cruz Oxford: John and Erica Hedges (BAR International Series, 1168) 2 TABLE OF CONTENT Foreword M. Steven Shackley……..………………………………………………. ii Preface ………………………………………………………………………..… iii Chapter 1 – Study of Lithic Raw Material Procurement in Prehistory: An Introduction…………………………………………...………………… 1 Chapter 2 – Geological Studies on Chert: A Bibliography………………………….. 21 Chapter 3 – Archaeological Studies on Lithic Raw Materials: A Bibliography…….. 63 Chapter 4 – Archaeological Studies on Lithic Raw Materials: Indexes…………….. 211 3 FOREWORD M. Steven Shackley University of California, Berkeley Define the problem. A good source analysis is usually complex and expensive, and should not be initiated merely as a fishing expedition in the vague hope that you might find something interesting…all chert sources have an inherent level of uncertainty. There are millions of chert sources on earth, and unless you control every one of them there is always the possibility that the artifact in question is actually made from a material outside your sampling universe (Luedtke 1992:117). A year or so before her untimely death in May 2000, I had occasion to discuss the issue of chert characterization and source provenance studies with Barbara Luedtke. She felt adamant that one of the greatest stumbling blocks to understanding worldwide hunter-gatherer exchange, group interaction, not to mention procurement ranges, was an ability to confidently determine the geological origin of cherts. Christophe Delage has taken a large step in that direction by compiling the most comprehensive bibliography and index on chert procurement and characterization yet attempted. Delage is uniquely qualified for this task since he is both fluent in French and English, reads many other languages, and is a lithic analyst himself who has worked in a number of regions. Most of us in archaeology, particularly those of us who teach at universities, are incessantly worried that we cannot keep up with the literature in our discipline, indeed in our own specialties. Bibliographies and indexes compiled in the way this one is, certainly work toward ameliorating that issue. The sheer size of the number of entries here signals the problem we face in a 21st Century archaeology. Sure there will be those that can find an entry, that “should have been included”, but this will be a rarity. Perhaps just as valuable as the bibliography proper, is Delage’s introductory chapters. His eight years of work on this tome are reflected in the identification of the salient issues in chert procurement and characterization studies on a number of continents. The potentially hazardous interaction between poor field sampling of sources and black box analyses by NAA or other instrumental techniques is aptly discussed by Delage. This, of course, was brought to the fore by Church’s (1995) criticism of Hoard et al.’s (1993) study of White River secondary siliceous sediments in a Great Plains formation. The NAA study of the chert itself was not the thrust of Church’s critique, but the fact that most of the samples analyzed came from archaeological artifacts collected from the source rather than geological samples, ignoring the possibility of prehistoric re-tooling at the source (replacing old tools made from other sources with new material and discard of the old at the new source), and even the potential for collecting modern flintknapper debitage. In this case, one can commit a Type I or Type II error without knowledge. As ably noted by Delage, a comprehensive chert study relies on careful sampling as well as care in the laboratory whether the analysis involves megascopic source assignment, optical petrography, or instrumental chemistry. In a 21st Century archaeology, bibliographic studies such as this one are crucial to disseminate knowledge worldwide. I cannot think of any other way to keep up in a world that is becoming more corporate, more easily accessed, with a body of literature that seems to be expanding exponentially, and an ever expanding corps of new Ph.D.s. Delage will have to re-invent this bibliography as a mid-career project. Finally, I see this as a companion to the International Association for Obsidian Studies on-line bibliography of obsidian research at: http://www.peak.org/obsidian/iaos_bib.html Indeed, Delage’s bibliography will be most valuable in electronic form, and while I recommend that all archaeologists, and some geologists, include this book in their libraries, the electronic version carries the greatest utility. 4 PREFACE The first mention on lithic raw material procurement in prehistoric times goes back to the 19th century, with a note on the Neolithic chert extraction site of Grime's Graves in England (Greenwell 1870). Since then, the literature on this topic continued to increase steadily, especially since the 1970's. Rocks, such as cherts, appeal to prehistorians for their material characteristics of hardness and durability. These raw materials indeed constitute archaeological remains essential for testifying to the presence and evolution of hominids since the origins of humankind. Moreover, lithic artifacts present in any archaeological site yield, more or less completely and clearly, evidence of the various treatment they have experienced from their acquisition in the natural environment to their discard. Therefore, these archaeological remains can shed light on the techno-economic activities of prehistoric groups as well as on their adaptive patterns to specific environments. The question then becomes how to assess the nature of the evidence that can be drawn from such remains of the past. These artifacts can indeed lead to a multiplicity of dimensions related to human activities. Therefore, anthropologists in most regions of the world are now concerned and interested in such an approach in order to reconstruct past human behavior. The published evidence is presented in many languages and is available in both local and international journals. Nowadays, it appears quite overwhelming, almost impossible, to grasp the full extent of research regarding this topic. Efforts in the last decades have tried to fill in the blanks, focusing on methodological grounds (Church 1994; Luedtke 1992;Séronie-Vivien and Séronie-Vivien 1987) or on the synthesis of specific geographical areas from either the Old World (Féblot-Augustins 1997) or the New World (Banks 1990). Yet, these rather essential publications inevitably provided a limited scope of reflection and discussion. It would become necessary at some point to expand and update their basis. A first step in this direction would be to become aware of the huge amount of literature on this topic. Such a reference source would then provide the "raw material" for scholars interested in furthering their knowledge and understanding of prehistoric economic strategies of lithic procurement and exploitation. This volume corresponds to this first step. It is the result of several years collecting bibliographical references on lithic raw material procurement and exploitation in prehistoric times. Publications ranging from a simple mention of a few raw materials present at a specific site to detailed studies of lithic sourcing and procurement strategies or the geo-archaeological assessment of chert available in a particular region, have been taken into consideration. Moreover, literature covering every prehistoric (Old World) / pre-contact (New World) periods from both the New and Old Worlds have been considered. In 2001, more than 2000 references were available, reflecting the considerable interest shown by anthropologists for such a topic in the last 130 years. This publication does not pretend to be exhaustive, but rather represents an effort in this direction. Many subsequent editions, updating it continually with recent as well as older references, will be required to reach this point. In its present version, this first edition contains bibliographical references that will interest specialists from various fields from the social sciences (anthropology, archaeology,...) as well as the natural sciences (earth sciences). Organization of the Volume The volume is composed of four parts. Chapter 1 is an introduction to the field of lithic raw material procurement in prehistoric times. A large amount of literature has been considered in this review. Moreover, it focuses on rocks composed of siliceous raw materials, mainly cherts. It presents methodological considerations related to the geo-archaeological assessment of raw material availability and sourcing, as well as prehistoric procurement and exploitation patterns. It draws on examples from the Old and the New Worlds. Chapter 2 is comprised of bibliographical references which cover the geological studies on cherts, whereas Chapter 3 is concerned with archaeological studies on cherts. The earliest reference found goes back to 1870 (Greenwell 1870); and the most recent information in the database is from 2001. Chapter 4 is divided into geographical and chronological indices based on the database presented in Chapter 3. 5 Acknowledgements Collecting bibliographical references on a specific topic like cherts (from a geological and archaeological viewpoint) is a tedious and time-consuming task. This volume is the result of seven years of research. Along the way, many people have helped me in various ways to access libraries, acquire books and journals, or provide references. This research started in 1995 while I was a doctoral student at the French Research Center in Jerusalem (Israel). I would like to thank the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Center Directors, F. Blanchetière and D. Bourel for the financial support during the first years (1995-1997). During this time period, I was able to spend six months at Indiana University (USA), as a CRAFT (Center of Research in the Anthropological Foundations of Technology) research associate. I sincerely thank Kathy Schick and Nick Toth (CRAFT co-directors) for granting me this affiliation. The time spent there was the most crucial for assembling the references presented here. In the last years, the University of California, Santa Cruz, provided the conditions necessary for the inclusion of more recent references in the database. This would not have been possible without the amazing help of Jennifer Walker and Jim Tschen-Emmons from the Inter-Library Loan Department. Finally, I would like to thank Jan St Clair for editing Chapter 1 and improving the clarity of the text through her suggestions and comments. 6 - CHAPTER 1 - STUDY OF LITHIC RAW MATERIAL PROCUREMENT IN PREHISTORY AN INTRODUCTION 7 8 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Several conclusions can be drawn from these considerations: 1) The use of a unique term (chert) in a general sense would imply a variety of features among rocks being considered rather than a variety of rocks. On the mineralogical level, cherts are constituted "largely or entirely of cryptocrystalline or microcrystalline quartz" (Blatt et al. 1980: 571; see also Friedman et al. 1992: 133; Heinrich 1956: 135; Nockolds et al. 1978: 291). Within a matrix made almost exclusively of silica, some rare impurities, such as particles of clay, calcite or hematite, may also be found (Blatt et al. 1972: 535; Blatt et al. 1980: 571; Hammer 1976: 40-41); 2) It is essential to avoid making direct equivalence between a specific term such as "chert" and a specific type of outcrop, texture, or color… I. TERMINOLOGY Terminology of the sedimentary rocks composed mainly of silica requires some explanation. At the mineralogical and petrographic level, there is a great variety of types, from purely organic and nonconsolidated materials to the various groups of "cherts" (Hatch et al. 1957: 198-199). Between these two extremities, numerous intermediate types are present, which do not make identification easier for geologists or prehistorians (Calogero 1992; Calogero and Philpotts 1995; Holliday and Welty 1981; Luedtke 1992). For instance, geologists are far from agreeing to definitions and names of these various rocks. In various parts of the world, such as the New England region of the United States (Calogero 1992; Dincauze 1976; Luedtke 1993) and eastern Africa (Potts 1991; Stiles et al. 1974; Toth 1985, 1987), prehistoric groups have taken advantage of a variety of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks which requires great caution and in-depth knowledge for their identification. Nevertheless, we will focus as much as possible on siliceous materials in the text that follows. II. HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH It is quite difficult to present a historical view of the work done without taking into consideration the specific dynamics of each geographical area. First, the interest in studying lithic sources and exploitation patterns did not appear everywhere at the same time. Second, different traditions of research or of thought have oriented or emphasized research designs and/or methods toward specific domains or periods. Finally, our assumption regarding the rarity, or even the lack, of publications in some areas, such as the Asian continent, could be due to a language problem and reflect our inability to read some original texts, for instance in Chinese, Japanese or Russian. In the English speaking literature, one can generally find references to such terms as chert, flint and chalcedony (Butler and May 1984: xviii). The term "flint" has been used for a long time in a very restricted sense, particularly in British geological and archaeological publications (Butler and May 1984: xviii). Thus flint was defined as a rock of dark brown to black color, present as nodules in the Upper Cretaceous chalks (Hammer 1976: 41; Henson 1985: 2). In the middle of the 20th century, Wray (1948: 25) promoted the term “flint” as a generic name, but without success. More recently, the term "chert" has achieved more wide-spread consensus, both in geology and in archaeology (Butler and May 1984: xviii; Hammer 1976: 41; Hatch et al. 1957: 199; Luedtke 1979: 745). Europe Prior to the 1970s, it is possible to find only brief notes mentioning the chert types present at a site and their sources. These rare efforts were the result of an early interest already present among some archaeologists, as well as geologists at the beginning of the 20th century (Demars 1982a: 29-30). The pioneer work by L. Valensi (1955, 1960) and G. Deflandre (1966), in the application of micropaleontology to chert sourcing, represents a notable exception. The true development of this discipline happens in the 1970s, in Western and Eastern Europe. 9 Research on the Neolithic period focuses on documenting networks of long-distance exchange. Petrographic analyses of polished axes (Cogne et Giot 1952; Cummins 1974; Cummins and Moore 1973; Evens et al. 1972; Le Roux et Cordier 1974; McK Clough and Green 1972; Morey 1950) and geochemical characterization of cherts from major mines (Aspinall and Feather 1972; de Bruin et al. 1972; Sieveking et al. 1970; Sieveking et al. 1972) provide most of the evidence to stimulate on-going debates. This tradition of research on lithic procurement during the Neolithic period is still present, particularly in England, Belgium and the Netherlands. The city of Maastricht in the Netherlands provided a dynamic context for the first three international conferences on chert, in 1969, 1975, and 1979 (respectively Engelen 1971 ed., 1976 ed., 1981 ed.; see history of conferences in Séronie-Vivien and Lenoir 1990). In England recently, research has also included the periods prior to the Neolithic, notably the Upper Palaeolithic (Slater and Grünberg 1991) and especially the Mesolithic (Myers 1989; Wickham-Jones 1989; Woodman 1989). These recent studies have also initiated a change of approach, focusing now on the sources of cherts present at a specific site. By contrast, Belgium and the Netherlands continue the tradition of analysis from the perspective of a specific source area (notably workshops and mines), assessing its geographical distribution at various chronological periods (Caspar 1984). have now documented the diversity of chert procurement patterns. Overall, the Lower Palaeolithic (Wilson 1988, and some data in the monograph edited by Bonifay and Vandermeersch, 1991) and the Neolithic (Binder 1986, 1991b; Binder et al. 1990; Briois 1990; Jeudy et al. 1995; Pétrequin et al. 1993; Plateaux 1990, 1993) seem less investigated and known than the Upper Palaeolithic (Aubry 1990; Chadelle 1990; Demars 1982a, 1990a, 1990b, 1992; Larick 1983, 1986; Turq 1992b; Turq et al. 1992), and especially the Middle Palaeolithic (Dibble 1995; Geneste 1988b, 1989; Meignen 1988; Moncel and Combier 1990; Turq 1989, 1990b, 1995). With regard to Germany, analyses have concentrated essentially on the Upper Palaeolithic period (Aurignacian-GravettianMagdalenian). Thus the procurement of nonlocal cherts is now well documented for these periods (Floss 1990, 1991; Hahn 1987; Hahn and Owen 1984, 1985; Scheer 1993; Weniger 1987a, 1987b, 1990). These observations rest upon a precise, yet implicit, knowledge of the source areas, as no publication has presented details of the regional availability in cherts. For Mediterranean Europe, studies on chert procurement/exploitation are not numerous. Yet, Spain offers a rather different situation. Since the organization in 1990 of the 6th International Symposium on Flint, research on this topic has dramatically increased (Cacho 1990; Carbonell et al. 1999; Mallol 1999; Mosquera Martinez 1998; Ramos Millan 1991; Ramos Millan et al. 1991; Ripoll Lopez 1990; Soler et al. 1990; Straus 1992; Straus et al. 1986). All of the periods are investigated, from the Lower Palaeolithic at Atapuerca to the Bronze Age. In Italy, this kind of interest was rare until the 1990s (Barfield 1987, 1990; Simek and Ammerman 1990), but there is a more dynamic trend in recent years that encompasses raw materials (Barfield 1994; Bietti and Grimaldi 1995; Kuhn 1991, 1992, 1995; Kuhn and Stiner 1998; Milliken 1998). In Greece, obsidian has been the main focus of research (Torrence 1986). With regard to the rare publications that also touch upon chert, a special mention goes to C. Perlès, who deals with lithic raw material procurement and exploitation patterns from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Neolithic periods in continental Greece (Perlès 1990, 1992). In France, research took place at about the same time, initiated notably by Pierre-Yves Demars and others (Bricker 1975; Demars 1974; Malissen 1977; Séronie-Vivien et Le Tensorer 1979; Turq 1977). These studies seem to have been carried out independently from the trend mentioned in the previous paragraph, especially from the orientations regarding the Neolithic period. The principal interest is going to be on the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods. Moreover, the evidence available is now going to be based on systematic geoarchaeological surveys at the regional level (e.g, South-West, Massif central) and the analysis, essentially macroscopic, of numerous archaeological and geological chert samples. For example, doctoral dissertations by P.-Y. Demars (1982a) and Annie Masson (1981) are the achievement of many years of research. In the last two decades, several other dissertations (Aubry 1991; Fouéré 1994; Geneste 1985; Mauger 1985a; Morala 1984; Turq 1992a) have been defended and many publications on this topic Eastern Europe constitutes the other province where research on the characterization of chert sources and their prehistoric exploitation were initiated very early and have been particularly 10 developed in the second half of the 20th century. Poland leads this trend. With the impetus of J. Kozlowski, work there has been on-going since the 1970’s. Even at that time, earth sciences and prehistoric archaeology were working collaboratively to provide petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical information as accurately as possible on raw material sourcing (Kozlowski 1972-73). In 1976, a conference on chert procurement in the Carpathian region revealed the breadth of research on this topic (Kozlowski 1976; see also Balcer 1976; Schild 1976). Studies have focused on chert source areas (Borkowski et al. 1991; Kozlowski et al. 1981; Kozlowski and Pawlikowski 1989), notably of some very discriminant types, such as the "chocolate flint" outcropping in Central Poland (Lech and Lech 1984: 196-199; Schild 1971, 1979: 813, 1987: 142-147) or the "Swieciechow flint" (Balcer 1976: 190-196). The studies have also paid careful attention to Neolithic mines, very impressive and well known in this region of Europe (Borkowski 1995; Borkowski et al. 1986; Budziszewski 1986, 1990; Salacinski 1990; Salacinski and Bednarz 1995; Zalewski 1990, 1991, 1995). are sparse and have rarely been published. In this region of Europe, a few studies regarding raw material procurement have also been done in the former Yugoslavia (Montet-White 1994; Simek 1991; Voytek 1986-87). In the Scandinavian region, research has focused little on chert procurement and exploitation. The rare publications encountered are concerned with the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods (Hood 1994, 1995; Welinder and Griffin 1984). By contrast, much attention has been given to raw materials used in the manufacture of Neolithic polished axes. Africa The African continent has not yet been the subject of intensive research that allows us to get a global picture of chert availability. Only a few small-scale projects have contributed more in-depth knowledge on this topic. Moreover, these studies have often focused on a single chronological period. The first area to mention is Morocco, with the research on the Middle Paleolithic Period being carried out by L. Wengler (1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1991, 1993). Through these publications, one perceives the complexity of the field work involved in identifying the chert-bearing outcrops and documenting the raw material characteristics. Such a geo-archaeological approach becomes particularly meaningful when the author combines it with an understanding of the procurement and exploitation patterns of some Mousterian and Aterian sites. Numerous systematic surveys, as well as visual and archaeometric determinations of cherts, have been carried out in Hungary to assess regional raw material availability and characteristics. This exceptional effort has been led mainly by Katalin Biro, whose publications clearly detail the research methodology and the various results achieved (Biro 1986, 1988, 1989, 1993; Takacs-Biro 1986, 1987, 1988, 1991a, 1991b; Takacs-Biro and Tolnai-Dobosi 1990). Her research is of interest as much in the regional availability in cherts as in the features of the raw materials (dimensions, flintknapping qualities, access to outcrops, visual/mineralogical/geochemical aspects). Archaeological interpretations of lithic procurement patterns can then develop from these solid grounds. Besides research, various scholars have also contributed to the understanding of mineral resource exploitation during the Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic periods (Bacskay 1990; Dobosi 1991; Patay 1976; Siman 1989, 1991). In the Czech Republic and in Slovakia, research has focused primarily on the identification of raw material types present in various Upper Palaeolithic sites and their geographical origin (Kaminska 1990; Oliva 1990; Prichystal 1989, 1994; Skrdla 1994; Svoboda 1983, 1990, 1994a, 1994b). It appears that surveys were carried out to determine the regional availability, but data In Egypt, P. Vermeersch and his colleagues have been working for a few decades on the potential chert sources used by Palaeolithic hominids. They were thus able to identify several mines and extraction/quarry sites which date back to the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods (Vermeersch et al. 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991; Vermeersch and Van Peer 1990; see also Bednarik 1990; Fuchs 1995). Besides Vermeersch's efforts, another team led by F. Wendorf and R. Schild has also focused primarily on Egypt, bringing together scientists from various disciplines to understand the evolution and adaptation of prehistoric communities during the Pleistocene and early Holocene periods. Within the many aspects of this research, chert exploitation patterns were considered an important dimension to record and document. As part of this project, Angela Close recently offered an interesting model for the procurement and transportation patterns of 11 Neolithic raw materials (Close 1996, 1997). During this time period, distance does not seem to affect the characteristics of the raw materials moved around, as opposed to the Mousterian Period, for instance. Close argues then for the use of animals helping in the transport of complete nodules to occupation sites distant from the source areas. Winter and Ronen 1994). Regarding this later period, the detailed analyses on the prehistoric sites of the Negev (Israel) carried out by N. Goring-Morris and his team must be mentioned. Their long-term research now allows us to have a better idea of regional chert availability and the sources specifically exploited during the Epipalaeolithic Period. Fine-grained, as well as coarse-grained, cherts from local Eocene formations are present at lowlands sites. Nevertheless, chalcedony was also exploited, supposedly coming from Senonian outcrops at a distance of 6-8 kilometers from the sites (Goring-Morris 1996: 133-134; Goring-Morris et al. 1998: 162). In eastern Africa, research on the provenance of lithic raw materials can best be illustrated by case studies of Lower Pleistocene sites, such as Olduvai and Koobi Fora (FéblotAugustins 1990; Potts 1991; Schick and Toth 1994; Stiles et al. 1974; Toth 1985, 1987). By contrast, the recent analysis carried out by Barut (1994) has focused on later periods, notably the transition from the Middle Stone Age to Later Stone Age. Finally, there are a few publications on this topic relevant to South Africa (Ambrose and Lorenz 1990; Parkington 1986). Americas Within the Americas, North America is the other continent, besides Europe, where an interest to locate lithic raw material sources grew very early, especially in a theoretical atmosphere influenced by cultural ecology. Asia Canada reveals an interesting diversity of research on this topic. Some of the literature concerns only geo-archaeological aspects, focusing either on the assessment of regional chert availability (see Lazenby 1980), or on micropaleontological or geochemical characterization of raw materials (see Eley and von Bitter 1989; Julig et al. 1988, 1989; Lazenby 1980). Other studies are more archaeologically oriented toward some understanding of raw material procurement, exploitation and distribution/exchange patterns during the late prehistory of various parts of the Canadian territory (Gramly 1978; Hayden et al. 1996; McCaffrey 1989; Parker 1986; Plourde 1993; Plumet 1981). Studies on raw material sourcing have been carried out at both extremities of this vast continent (i.e., Near East and Japan). If we start with Japan, only a few references in English are available (Warashina 1992; Yamamoto 1990). Cherts do not seem to be an abundant raw material in this region. Methods of analysis have been quite diversified, combining mineralogical and geochemical approaches. In the Near East, preliminary reports are now relatively abundant, yet rare are the studies that follow a detailed geo-archaeological procedure to document regional chert availability and prehistoric exploitation patterns. First, chert-bearing formations seem to appear in most locations in southwest Asia, yet there are some rare cases where nonsedimentary rocks (volcanic areas) are present. In these cases, prehistoric sites are particularly interesting to study for their procurement patterns. Preliminary studies were thus carried out with this mindset, notably by Erella Hovers (1990) in the Golan Heights and by Alison Betts (1983a, pl. IA, 1984: 31, 34, 1991: 222, 230, 1998) in the Black Desert of Jordan. Distances involved in the transport of lithic raw materials is usually about 20 to 50 kilometers (cf. Betts 1991). Research on this topic has focused on the Middle Palaeolithic Period (Henry 1992, 1995; Hovers 1990) and on the Epipalaeolithic Period (Delage 1997, 1999, 2001; Goring-Morris 1987, 1996; Goring-Morris et al. 1998; Ronen et al. 1994, In the United-States, research on lithic sourcing started towards the end of the 19th century. Interest was stimulated by the regular discovery of chert mines and quarries (see Butler and May 1984: xviii; Vehik 1985c: 265). The enthusiasm of that period faded quickly. It is only in the 1970s that renewed interest in these questions can be noticed. This situation is related to several factors. On the one hand, cultural ecology (with its strong emphasis on the complex relationships between humans and their natural environment) was showing the potential of new applications in archaeology. Combined with models based on recent ethnoarchaeological inquiries, this paradigm offered a very stimulating theoretical framework to interpret human behaviors. New concepts were developed, such as those of lithic "curation" or of lithic procurement strategies, with its 12 alternatives: direct/indirect, embedded/ specialized (Binford 1977, 1979, 1980). On the other hand, large projects of Cultural Resource Management were occurring in various parts of the country, in which numerous contract archaeology companies were involved. This new trend saw the development of detailed research on the regional level. As a part of these projects, the assessment of chert availability, based on systematic geo-archaeological surveys, took a crucial position (Butler and May 1984: xviiixix). The State of Illinois is one of the best examples of the range and intensity of research performed in this direction (Odell 1984, 1996). As opposed to these efforts in the field and the theoretical advances, the characterization of chert types and their provenance was becoming a more and more controversial topic, since techniques used were leading toward increasing interpretive problems rather than establishing reliable observations. The choice and nature of the analytical procedure were essential topics to discuss if any scholar were to argue convincingly for the geographical and geological source areas exploited in a specific period and region (see Blakeman 1977; Luedtke 1978, 1979). In her doctoral dissertation (1976), Barbara Luedtke tested the validity of the geochemical technique of chert characterization using trace elements in order to identify well defined sources of raw materials. Her exceptional research, focusing on several thousand samples, thus made some progress toward these goals, even though numerous problems (geological cartography, sampling, etc.) were still present (Luedtke 1992: 123-147). In this very dynamic context, several conferences took place early in the 1980s, in order to create a platform for researchers to exchange their viewpoints and gain a broader knowledge of the information already available (Butler and May 1984 eds.; Vehik 1985 ed.). At about the same time, a publication focusing on extraction sites and lithic procurement systems was published (Ericson and Purdy 1984 eds.). 1996; see papers in Carr 1994 ed.; Ellis and Lothrop 1989 eds.; Odell 1996 ed.; Torrence 1989 ed.). If we consider the example of Paleoindian groups, for decades scholars have considered them as freely wandering in vast territories (Storck and von Bitter 1989: 181). These speculations were based notably on the interpretation that most rocks found at Paleoindian sites were of non-local origin. Recent surveys carried out in the surroundings of some of these sites revealed the presence of chert nodules. However, these lithic raw materials were not outcropping in primary sedimentary deposits but rather in secondary ones, in river streams or conglomerates. This new evidence seriously challenges the picture of lithic availability that was previously taken for granted and opens new perspectives on mobility and natural resource exploitation patterns (Andrefsky 1991, 1994a, 1994b; Lavin and Prothero 1981, 1992). In other parts of the Americas, this research topic has been investigated very little. In Central America, lithic raw material sources seem relatively well known (Graham 1987), yet no details on the geological sequence and lithology or on the methodology applied in the field to map these sources are available. Geochemical analysis of some of these lithic materials have been published (Tobey et al. 1986). In South America, the rare publications concern Chile and Argentina, where two studies have tried to assess the origin of the siliceous rocks present at various Paleoindian sites (Nami 1991; Nami and Case 1988). Australia This continent is the last one where some individuals, among certain groups of huntergatherers, still practice flintknapping or were doing so in the very recent past. Therefore, ethnoarchaeological studies have been quite abundant, given the ability to use aboriginal lithic technology as a main topic of research (Gamble 1993; Gould 1977, 1978; McBryde 1991a, 1991b). By contrast, studies on this topic are still relatively rare regarding the regional prehistory (see Lourandos 1997 for a summary of available evidence). Lithic procurement and exploitation patterns at some specific sites or in a specific region are the focus of these studies. Recent observations in the field and about chert characterization have allowed some progress in the discussion of the concepts offered by Binford and the techniques available. In the last decades, the analysis of the technological organization of production has become a dominant research topic, notably in relation to the mobility patterns of prehistoric groups and the constraints of chert availability (Amick 1995, 1996; Andrefsky 1994a; Bamforth 1986; Kelly and Todd 1988; Odell 1996; Parry and Kelly 1987; Stothers 13 CHERT PROCUREMENT: GEO-ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS studies consist of assessment of the geographical distribution of a specific raw material from its source area; others focus on the types of raw materials present in an archaeological assemblage and try to determine their origin (Caspar 1984: 107; Luedtke 1992: 117). The specificities of these various perspectives are presented below. Research on chert procurement and exploitation has resulted in a wide variety of approaches being applied. These may include short or long-term projects, with modest or ambitious, theoretical or empirical goals. Numerous archaeological studies have attempted to precisely determine the geological context of chert-bearing sedimentary formations and the chert availability of a specific geographical area (Munson and Munson 1984; Odell 1984; Ray 1985; Turq 1992a). Barbara Luedtke (1993: 58-59) has recently reminded us that the number of publications regarding this type of evidence is still relatively small. More specialized analyses have been performed by prehistorians, geologists and physicists, in order to document the mineralogical, petrographic and/or geochemical nature of siliceous rocks and develop methods to assess their geographical origin (Hoard et al. 1992, 1995; Luedtke 1978, 1979; Séronie-Vivien and Séronie-Vivien 1987; Séronie-Vivien 1995; Tankersley 1985). Moreover, some studies have focused on correlating the nature of the lithic raw materials exploited at a site (dimensions, texture, knapping quality, etc.) with reductional sequences, in order to shed light on specific technological choices and differential treatment of raw materials (Andrefsky 1994a; Binder et al. 1990; Demars 1982b). Finally the identification of the siliceous rocks present in an archaeological lithic assemblage and the assessment of their provenance can lead to important theoretical implications about the understanding of past human behavior: exploitation territory size, settlement and mobility patterns, the nature of lithic assemblage variability, long-distance exchange networks, relationships between close or distant groups, etc. (among others, Andrefsky 1994a; Arnold 1990; Dibble 1991, 1995; Geneste 1988b). Diffusion of lithic materials from a specific source area This approach has been applied mainly in Eastern Europe and North America. Research interests focused at the beginning on extraction sites, such as quarries exploited by native Americans and mines used during the European Neolithic period. Following this early stage, scholars tried to understand and map where these extracted raw materials were transported. This perspective requires a detailed knowledge of siliceous rocks in their geological context (age of the sedimentary formation considered, geographical distribution of the outcrops, density of the silicifications, etc.) and of their macroscopic (color, texture, knapping quality, etc.) and geo-archaeological (mineralogical, petrographic, geochemical, etc.) features. Based on some generally distinctive visual traits that the raw materials identified may reveal, it is possible to recognize quickly and easily their area of provenance. Thus scholars could circumscribe the area of geographical distribution of these specific rocks and compare the diffusion patterns from different periods, at the level of a site or a region (Schild 1987: 137). It is indeed interesting to document not only differences in the presence/absence of specific raw materials at any site under consideration, as well as the distances involved in the transport of these rocks, but also variations in the nature of the products transported (complete nodules, prepared nodules, unretouched blanks, retouched tools). I. TYPES OF APPROACHES The most famous example for Eastern Europe concerns the so-called "Chocolate Flint", that is dated to the Jurassic stage and is outcropping in Central Poland (Lech and Lech 1984: 196-199; Schild 1971, 1976, 1979: 813, 1987: 142-147). This type of material seems to have been Based on the large amount of literature available on lithic raw material procurement and exploitation, it is now possible to identify several trends in this type of research: some 14 exploited during the Final Paleolithic and the Early Neolithic periods. During these periods, sites located at a distance of less than 100 kilometers from the source yield generally large quantities of this material (more than 50 %). Beyond this distance, percentages decrease very rapidly. Another type of siliceous material, known as "Swieciechow Flint", has been studied in the same manner. Also outcropping in Poland, it is dated to the Lower Turonian (Balcer 1976: 190-196). Even though its exploitation goes back to the Mousterian period, its exploitation have been documented only for the Neolithic. Balcer identified three zones of chert distribution. In the first one (less than 60 km from the source area), archaeological assemblages are constituted mainly of this raw material. Beyond this point, two other zones have been arbitrarily described (60-180 km and 180-300 km), in which observations of the shape and technological stage of the raw material reveals interesting patterns: sickle blades, retouched blades, as well as caches containing unretouched blades, have been found. Caspar (1984) mentions other examples of this type of approach, concerning the exploitation of phtanite and the quartzitic sandstone of Wommersom (GQW) during the Prehistory of Belgium. In the Vosges Mountain of Eastern France, Pierre Pétrequin and his team discovered some quarries of black rocks exploited during the Neolithic. This complex located at Plancher-les-Mines allowed them to document the production process and distribution of polished axes during this period (Jeudy et al. 1995; Pétrequin et al. 1993). In the United States, numerous case studies were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s where various discriminant lithological types of rocks were identified in various parts of the country. Diversified means of characterization including petrography, micro-palaeontology, and geochemistry - were applied to define precisely these raw materials. A perspective, comparable to the one encountered in Europe, has also been applied in North America to document the transport patterns and distances involved in the distribution of a specific rock type from its source area (Amick 1994a; Clark 1984; McGregor 1993; LeTourneau 1992; Ray 1986-87; Vehik 1985c, 1986, 1988). Cherts present in the Monterey Formation (California), studied by Jeanne Arnold (1987, 1990), are a good illustration of this kind of approach. In the Santa Barbara area of Southern California, this raw material type seems to be outcropping only on the Santa Cruz Island. Locations with chert nodules are rather localized in the eastern part of the island. Before A.D. 1300, aboriginal groups would have exploited these raw materials by direct procurement for domestic purposes. Archaeological sites dated of this period yield a variety of lithic artefacts that can account for every stage of the reductional sequences. After A.D. 1300, the situation changes. Only some categories of remains - notably microblades and microdrills - are present in occupation sites and sites specialized in bead production. Some groups would have had control over the access to chert sources. Lithic reductional sequences would have taken place essentially at the extraction sites. Moreover, production would have followed more normative and standardized technological schemes. Origin of Raw Materials from Archaeological Sites The emphasis of this approach rests upon the lithic assemblage(s) in one or several archaeological sites. "It essentially aims at completing the information relative to a site" (Caspar 1984: 107, my translation). Whereas the previous perspective concerns generally technoeconomic contexts of human societies qualified as "more complex", such as the European Neolithic or the Archaic period in North America, the present approach fits better with Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic periods. The differential exploitation of the regional landscape appears less specialized than during the Neolithic period or among sedentary farming communities. Moreover, extraction sites are relatively rare during pre-Neolithic times (see Kozlowski 1991). This perspective implies several research phases. First of all, it is necessary to assess the range of raw material diversity present at the site(s) under consideration. The definition of criteria of observation (generally visual) allows us to identify well-defined lithic types and the inventory of raw materials (Keller 1982; Séronie-Vivien 1995). Based on these observations, it is then essential to consider the regional geological context in order to offer suggestions about the origin of these artefacts. The lithic analyst can either include the contribution of a geologist who specializes in the geographical zone under study (Lenoir and Séronie-Vivien 1991; Straus et al. 1987) or undertake him/herself the task of documenting the regional availability and characteristics of the rocks suitable for knapping (Keller 1982; Morala 1984; Turq 1992a). This perspective has been widely applied all over the world, thus revealing its potential and usefulness in understanding prehistoric adaptive 15 patterns in relation to specific natural environments. Some trans-cultural patterns appear to be striking, such as the preferential use of local resources. Various authors have referred to an attitude of "common sense" to make sense of this pattern (Blakeman 1977; Caspar 1984: 107-108; Luedtke 1992: 121). According to them, it would, therefore, be reasonable to argue for a local origin for any raw material type present in large quantities at an archaeological site. This approach has nevertheless some limitations related to the specificities of each geological context (Butler 1984: 299). In the case, for example, of very early periods, such as the Middle Pleistocene, it is quite possible that raw material sources, accessible at the time, would now be eroded or buried under more recent deposits. It is notably the hypothesis suggested by N. Toth for the Acheulean site of Ambrona in Spain (Toth 1991: 110). In other contexts, homogeneous cherts from a single formation, outcropping over a wide region, will constitute the only available resources. These repetitive features will seriously weaken pinpointing the geographical origin of the raw materials exploited and, as a consequence, the potential of this approach (Keller 1982: 166; Killick 1992: 119; McGregor 1993: 248). Another set of problems which has been rarely considered until recently, concerns the secondary contexts of deposition from which lithics can be extracted. In some cases, these deposits are relatively close to primary sources; yet there are many cases where raw materials can be found several hundreds of kilometers away from their original context (e.g., glaciers, very active rivers) (Butler 1984: 299). It is generally difficult to identify all of these secondary deposits in the course of geoarchaeological surveys. Nevertheless, it is important to keep in mind that these sources play an often essential role in the lithic procurement strategies implemented by prehistoric groups. The fact that they have often not been taken into consideration has led some prehistorians to argue for past huntergatherer high mobility and movement over long distances (Andrefsky 1994a, 1994b; Shackley 1998; Shelley 1993; Wyckoff 1993). II. ARCHAEOLOGICAL COLLECTION established in relation with the set of questions and hypotheses, as well as the methodological preferences and the techniques of characterization available. Regarding these latter ones, some techniques are destructive, as in the case of certain types of geochemical analysis or the practice of making thin-sections for petrographic observations; others are nondestructive (e.g., visual observation, X-ray fluorescence, neutron activation). Some of the questions that one plans to focus on in the lithic analysis may require samples constituted of the various technological categories (cores, discarded by-products, retouched tools), whereas others may concentrate on some classes of artefacts only. Thus, cores (Demars 1982b), unretouched blades (Hofman 1987), projectile points (Amick 1994b, 1996; Custer 1986; Hill 1994; Hofman 1991; Tankersley 1989, 1991), burins (Demars 1982b), or the whole toolkit (Bergman et al. 1992), have been the subject of particular attention in the archaeological literature. Moreover, chipped stone assemblages can originate from either old or recent excavations, test pits, or surface collections. These can be part of private or museum collections). It is therefore obvious that research goals and strategy will require some adjustments in their definition and implementation according to these varied situations. It is also essential to define the criteria for sampling and observation. The sorting out of artefacts should take into account which products can be used for destructive methods and which cannot (Luedtke 1992: 118-119; Séronie-Vivien and Séronie-Vivien 1987: 116; Shackley 1998: 262). In the case of visual observation, another important guideline concerns weathered and altered cherts, either by patina or by the action of fire. These artefacts reveal alterations of the surface to such extent that it is rarely possible to recognize the initial color(s) and various features of the raw materials considered (Caspar 1984: 109; Cowell and Bowman 1985: 36-37; Séronie-Vivien 1995). It is, therefore, necessary, on a methodological level, to set them aside. The selection of burnt artefacts for geochemical analysis would not appear too problematic, since the trace element component does not seem altered by heating action (Hess 1996; Luedtke 1992: 101-103). By contrast, patinated objects should be avoided, as the weathering that affected their surface is of a chemical nature and thus modifies the mineral composition of these rocks (Cowell and Bowman 1985: 36-37; Luedtke 1992: 107-111). DATA The choice and sampling of archaeological lithic assemblages constitute a first important step of the analytical procedure. This step is 16 III. GEOLOGICAL COLLECTION AND AVAILABILITY characterization (geochemical or isotopic analyses) does not seem justified, even though archaeologists make often excessive use of them. By contrast, when the geological layout of a region is varied (e.g., as a result of various paleogeographic environments of deposition), the application of petrography can be of a great utility, before moving on to more costly and time-consuming methods (Killick 1992: 119). DATA CHERT This stage of the methodological procedure rests rather largely upon geological considerations (Henson 1985: 2; Vehik 1985c: 265). Indeed, it seems relatively difficult to analyze chert procurement or exchange patterns without any reference to chert nodules in their geological context. A good knowledge of regional chert availability is therefore an important research goal to achieve. Survey and Fieldwork Strategies When fieldwork strategies are of concern, the viewpoint of a geologist is usually different than that of a prehistorian. For instance, field observations recorded by a geologist, when they reveal some information about siliceous rocks, are generally partial or not relevant to the prehistorian. Therefore, nothing should prevent archaeologists from checking out lithic sources themselves in order to carry out their own observations (Butler 1984: 300; Luedtke 1993: 59). Geological locales yielding siliceous rocks are of diverse nature: natural sections, faults, conglomerates, alluvial terraces, moraines, road cuts, etc. In the North-American tradition, scholars have often searched for archaeological extraction sites, such as quarries or mines, that provide a direct evidence for chert exploitation in their natural environment. As a consequence, the lithic samples selected for archaeometric analysis originate sometimes from archaeological assemblages present at these extraction sites (Hoard et al. 1992, 1995). Various scholars have now insisted upon a thorough mapping of sedimentary outcrops separated from the identification of human activities, in order to avoid any confusion (Church 1995; Lavin and Prothero 1992: 98100; Luedtke 1992, 1993). Review of the available geological literature and maps This work phase provides detailed information regarding some of the specificities of the sedimentary sequence, focusing on the chertbearing formations. Based on a thorough examination of the geological maps, it is then possible to assess the geographical distribution of these particular layers (Henson 1985; Ray 1985; Johnson and Meeks 1994; SéronieVivien and Séronie-Vivien 1987; Turq 1992a). Such a preliminary assessment allows one to draw a more precise picture of the geological characteristics of the region under consideration. Moreover, it is a necessary step to narrow down and guide the following research phases, notably at the level of the research design and the choice of methodology to implement. As mentioned often in the literature, there is now a wide range of characterization techniques available: some of them reveal themselves as very useful on some raw materials, whereas others are unproductive. In addition, any geological province presents specific lithological features that define and differentiate it from others. It is important not to choose blindly some techniques of analysis, simply because they have produced compelling results in other geological contexts (Luedtke 1992; SéronieVivien and Séronie-Vivien 1987; Shackley 1998). This initial routine offers various advantages. First, it allows us to recognize the distribution and nature of the chert-bearing formations compared to the whole sedimentary sequence. Then, it is possible to locate secondary sources (alluvium, conglomerates, etc.) in relation to in situ outcrops. When geological features appear "simple" (i.e., without post-depositional tectonic movements) and uniform (e.g., one or two formations outcropping), the potential to identify chert sources can be limited. Therefore, the application of very sophisticated techniques of Geo-archaeological surveys are usually aimed at locating the source areas of raw materials present at a site. Often considered in relation to this approach is the idea that the identification and mapping of lithic sources should focus exclusively on materials with good knapping abilities, i.e. fine-grained rocks with little or not inclusions (Amick 1981: 48). Such a viewpoint denies any kind of cultural diversity: the appreciation of how "good" a rock is for knapping is socially and historically determined and therefore, should vary from culture to culture. Surveys must then aim at identifying, mapping and drawing the most complete picture as possible of chert availability in a specific region. Such a proposition can also be justified on another level. As an example, let us start by considering that 1) any geographical area can be defined by some specific features (e.g., 17 plants, animals, climate, topography, etc.), among which the geological substratum is an essential component, and 2) humans make various choices and decisions toward this "nature" through their exploitation strategies and representations. In the specific case of the lithics prehistoric groups have acquired, the raw materials available in their local environment, though non-exploited, should take a more important position in the understanding of lithic procurement patterns, besides the rocks that were actually utilized. It is indeed through a thorough mapping and inventory of siliceous resources of the surveyed area that one can document some of the choices and intentions that have shaped prehistoric peoples' ways of thinking and acting on their natural surroundings. Sampling Collecting samples of geological cherts is a crucial stage of the research. The size and nature of these samples should be strongly related to the research design. In principle, it is essential to assess as precisely as possible the level of chert variability within any deposit (Biro 1993). If the archaeologist's concern is on nodule size, it is then necessary to collect nodules representative of various sizes available from the smallest one to the largest one (Gatus 1983: 103). If the focus is on the variations of chert color, texture (etc.), the sampling will aim at collecting as many blocks as needed, reflecting the variability observed in the field (Luedtke 1993: 57). Finally, whatever the context of deposition (primary or secondary), it is always important to assess the density of chert nodules in a precise locale. This criteria is generally of a subjective nature. However, several prehistorians have tried to introduce a way to quantify data, notably by counting the amount of chert pebbles present at various points along the course of a river (Amick 1981). On another level, systematic geoarchaeological surveys should be carried out in order to 1) check the various contexts of deposition and sediments e.g. primary or secondary sources, present in the zone under consideration, and 2) sample the major lithic raw materials recognized (Séronie-Vivien and Séronie-Vivien 1987: 115). Secondary sources have been neglected for the longest time due to various reasons. For many archaeologists, secondary contexts of deposition yield generally coarse-grained rocks with low knapping qualities that would have been used rarely or never by prehistoric groups. Moreover these sources would be considered as difficult to identify and map (Lavin and Prothero 1992: 100-101). These last years, however, have witnessed a new trend where numerous studies have been focusing on these specific contexts (Amick 1981; Andrefsky 1991, 1994b; Gatus 1983; Lavin and Prothero 1992; Shelley 1993). Cherts originating from these deposits reveal features discriminant enough visually or petrographically to distinguish them. Various authors have notably concentrated their attention on the cortex that is often eroded and/or heavily battered (Amick 1981: 50; Masson 1982: 436). Recently, some scholars have discovered other phenomena related to secondary sources, notably the infiltration of minerals (e.g., iron oxide) which can be documented by red/purple spots/bands of irregular shape observable in the siliceous matrix (Lavin and Prothero 1981: 13-14, 1992: 106-109). Overall, conglomerates, alluvial terraces and slope deposits can yield chert nodules of homogeneous texture and high knapping quality (Johnson and Meeks 1994: 70). These observations are confirmed by the presence of such cherts in prehistoric sites. Lithotheca The geological chert samples thus collected can be grouped together and curated in a lithic reference collection, called "Lithotheca". Moreover it is possible at any time to add and complete as field research and knowledge of these raw materials progress. This reference collection serves as the basis for the next stages of laboratory research, such as the assessment of the characteristics and constraints of utilization of these raw materials (toughness, brittleness, knapping qualities...), some further archaeometric analyses (e.g., petrographic, micropalaeontological, geochemical, etc.), the comparison with the archaeological material, or even the experimental replication of the chaînes opératoires recognized. The concept and potential of such a reference collection have been understood and applied in various parts of the world, even if usually it has only rarely been described as an important methodological phase (Demars 1982a; Geneste 1985; Nale 1994). The long-term research project carried out by K. Biro in Hungary is a remarkable exception, as she has clearly shown use and interest value of a lithotheca (see Takacs-Biro 1987; Takacs-Biro and Tolnai-Dobosi 1990). A further and relatively new step in the use of the lithotheca is the constitution of digital images of the visual appearance of raw material or of petrographic thin sections that could be stored either on CDROMs or on specific webpages, available for on-line consultation through the Internet. 18 visual observation appears as the most realistic method. Its use is also of very low cost and it implies limited technical means (Blakeman 1977: 72; Calogero 1992: 89; Demars 1982a: 30, 59; Luedtke 1979: 745, 1993: 59; Morala 1984: 13). However, numerous cautious scholars have warned us that assessing lithic raw material sources based only on visual observations can be dangerous and misleading (Butler 1984: 300; Caspar 1984: 110; Hoard et al. 1992: 655-656; Luedtke 1979: 745, 1993: 56). Barbara Luedtke has been one of those who has most clearly identified the weaknesses and drawbacks of such an approach. First, the expertise of a prehistorian in this domain is the result of long experience. Such a specialist is able to "recognize lithic types through an unsystematic learning process that does not include any tests to verify the accuracy of our learning" (Luedtke 1993: 56). Second, his/her knowledge is of a rather impressionistic and subjective nature, and is, therefore, difficult to communicate (Luedtke 1979: 745). Analyses carried out by a scholar are rarely confirmed by those done by another scholar analyzing the same lithic assemblage (Calogero 1992; Luedtke 1979: 745, 1993: 57). Moreover, chert variability within a geological formation or even within a specific locale can be relatively high. The prehistorian will become progressively knowledgeable regarding the main (most often encountered) stone types, but, according to Luedtke (1993: 57), his/her errors will concern the identification of rarer types that are usually difficult to differentiate. Finally, in some specific geological contexts, some raw materials may reveal features (e.g., color and texture) so diverse that some traits considered characteristic of one source area or a specific formation can also be found in other localities, therefore reducing the potential accuracy of this technique (Kuhn and Lanford 1987: 58). In some other cases, some raw materials appear too homogeneous and uniform on the macroscopic level for any attempt to assess their provenance using this technique (Lavin and Prothero 1981: 4, 1992: 101). IV. ASSESSMENT OF RAW MATERIAL PROVENANCE An important research goal has been achieved when geological and archaeological lithic samples have been collected and sorted out. However the analytical procedure cannot be considered as complete at this stage. There is still the need to characterize precisely these various rocks in order to compare them and determine the geographical and/or geological sources of siliceous stones present at one or several sites. Characterization Methods Visual Observation - This technique of observation aims at characterizing siliceous rocks and creating a list of specific types. It requires from the start a definition of precise macroscopic criteria, e.g. type of cortex, color of the siliceous matrix, possible inclusions, fossils, texture, etc. (Demars 1982a: 59-65; Henson 1985: 4; Holliday and Welty 1981: 203; Johnson and Meeks 1994: 68; Morala 1984: 109-121; Séronie-Vivien and SéronieVivien 1987: 115-123; Turq 1992a: 198-251). The lithic assemblage considered is then subject to a detailed description, following the analytical grid previously established. At this stage, it is possible to lump together various objects in larger ensembles, which can be identified as raw material "types" (Masson 1987: 296; Ray 1983: 9-10; Séronie-Vivien 1995). A hierarchy of the traits observed on each piece is implemented to keep the most discriminant attributes of each type identified. These types will finally be organized into classes that correspond to a precise stratigraphic position and can eventually be attributed to a geographical (local or regional) area (Ray 1983: 9-10; Séronie-Vivien and Séronie-Vivien 1987: 121; Wray 1948). This procedure aims thus at establishing a list of raw materials that can be used and useful only in the limited geographical area where it was created (Butler 1984: 299-300). Nevertheless, numerous regions of the world have not yet witnessed the methodological and informative results of such a systematic effort (Vehik 1985c: 265). Mineralogical/petrographic characterization – The characterization of minerals is a procedure that can complement the visual observation. In the case of certain rocks (e.g., granite), it is possible to recognize visually their components. By contrast, chert is a cryptocrystalline to microcrystalline rock, constituted of very fine well-organized minerals. Siliceous materials, therefore, require more detailed techniques, such as the observation of thin sections under a microscope or X-Ray diffraction. For the application of this latter technique, chert Visual observation can provide very useful information in some specific contexts. Moreover, as a non-destructive method, it is the only way to analyze whole lithic assemblages. It is indeed rather unreasonable to sacrifice large quantities of artefacts for the need of destructive methods, such as petrography or geochemistry. Therefore, 19 samples are ground manually with a pestle. The powder is then hit by an X-ray beam. As a result, radiations are produced which can reveal the mineral composition of a rock based on specific wave lengths. This technique appears to be much more sensitive to the mineralogical content of a rock than visual observation under a microscope (see Kars et al. 1990; Shipley and Graham 1987). Despite this, results can be relatively deceptive since chert is constituted mainly of silica (Caspar 1984: 110). This might be mostly why the application of this technique has been relatively limited in the study of prehistory. The identification of minerals present in siliceous materials can be carried out directly with the help of a microscope. Any rock sample selected for this kind of analysis must go through a specific procedure: sawing, thinning, and polishing. The observation of the end-product (generally called "thin section") is done under a microscope with polarized light that facilitates the identification of various minerals. The archaeological literature yields numerous case studies where the potential of this technique has been tested and confirmed for the characterization of lithic raw materials (Masson 1981, 1982; Storck and von Bitter 1989; Tankersley 1985; Wray 1948). Nevertheless, this technique appears less effective if applied alone, as opposed to combined with other approaches. For instance, Storck and von Bitter (1989) have also looked for the presence of discriminant microfossils, whereas Tankersley (1985, 1989a) has combined the use of a polarized light microscope and scanning electron microscope in his analysis. However, this technique has also been criticized for the subjective validity of the determinations, its destructive nature, the cost for making thin sections, and the timeconsuming process to acquire the proper expertise (Luedtke 1979: 746, 1992: 118-119; Vehik 1985a: 1, 1985c: 265). Moreover, trace elements are present in concentrations too low to be recognized with such a technique. Therefore, various scholars have raised some doubts that the observation of thin sections can yield any evidence relevant to determine chert sources (Caspar 1984: 110; Cowell and Bowman 1985: 36). Another source of evidence in the observation of thin sections can come from petrographic analysis. This type of analysis can identify not only the minerals present, but also various other features that would help to define "microfacies". The emphasis will thus be on grain size, crystal morphology, crystallinity, microfossils, etc. (Davis 1985: 33; Lavin and Prothero 1992: 101-102), in order to reconstruct the history of the rocks under consideration, as well as their stratigraphic and/or geographic origin. The replacement of dolomitic rhombs by calcite, the preservation state of micro-organisms (complete/broken, …), and the size of grains can be good indicators of the palaeogeographic environment of deposition of these cherts. The work by Séronie-Vivien (Séronie-Vivien and Séronie-Vivien 1987; Séronie-Vivien 1995) is an excellent illustration of such an application in prehistory. Determination of micro-organisms - Even though siliceous rocks can contain fossils of various dimensions (foraminifers, ostracods, sponge spicules,...), it is more accurate in general to talk about micro-organisms, since it has been demonstrated that pollens, microplankton (e.g., dinoflagellates), or ligneous fragments can also be present among the "impurities" constituting siliceous rocks (Brooks 1989; Caspar 1984: 110). Some scholars have searched for the presence of these micro-organisms in their analyses of thin sections under a polarized light microscope. Work by K. Reid (1984) on lithics from Oklahoma, Missouri and Iowa (USA), by K. Tankersley (1985) on siliceous rocks from Southern Indiana (USA), and by A. Masson (1987) on a Neolithic assemblage from the Aude region (France), are good illustrations of this approach. These studies focused mainly on microfossils observable under a microscope. The identification of plankton or pollens requires most sophisticated analytical techniques. Thus chert samples are dissolved with acid to greatly reduce the amount of silica. The conditions are then met to identify various types of impurities when present. This technique has been implemented in various archaeological contexts and seems to have produced highly valuable evidence for sourcing lithic materials (Brooks 1989; Deflandre 1966; Ionnides 1995; Koerper et al. 1992; Mauger 1983, 1984, 1985a, 1985b; Valensi 1955, 1960). Geochemical characterization of elements (major, trace, rare earth) - The characterization of elements in cherts focuses on the very low concentrations of elements (parts per million [ppm] or per billion [ppb]) present in the impurities since generally more than 95 % of these rocks are made of silica. Numerous methods have been tested and applied since the 1970s. The focus in this section will be on three of them: X-ray fluorescence (XRF), neutron activation (NAA), and plasma emission spectrometry (ICP). Regarding X-ray fluorescence, this technique is relatively inexpensive, and it can be non-destructive when 20 sample sizes are small. The procedure is quite similar to that of X-ray diffraction. The beam hits the chert artifact and stimulates its electrons. Their movement produces radiations which correspond to differing wavelengths characteristic of various elements. T. Warashina (1992) applied this technique to the characterization of jasper from the Tokyo area (Japan). In their case study, X-ray fluorescence alone did not provide results with enough accuracy. Yet, when they combined it with another technique (i.e., Electron Spin Resonance - ESR), new observations led to correctly differentiate various lithic sources. By contrast, Kuhn and Lanford (1987), in a preliminary analysis of lithics from the New England area (USA), seem to have reached conclusive evidence implementing a similar application of this technique. Analyses based on neutron activation and inductively coupled plasma spectrometry allow us to measure a great number of elements usually present in extremely low concentrations with a higher degree of precision. Neutron activation analysis was developed in the 1970s (Aspinall and Feather 1972; deBruin et al. 1972; Sieveking et al. 1970; Luedtke 1976). In the following decades, this technique became the most common approach for the determination of trace elements in siliceous rocks (Frachtenberg 1992; Frachtenberg and Yellin 1992; Hoard et al. 1992, 1995; Ives 1984; Julig et al. 1988, 1989; Slater and Grünberg 1991; Tobey et al. 1986; Yellin 1995). Nevertheless, in the last years, the attention shifted toward plasma emission spectrometry (ICP-Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry). The growing amount of literature in major journals of archaeological science (e.g., Journal of Archaeological S c i e n c e , A r c h a e o m e t r y, Revue d'Archéométrie) shows the recent interest in this technique. However, ICP is still relatively infrequently used to characterize siliceous materials. It is essentially used in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Scandinavia where its application has been carried out on lithics associated with Neolithic mines (Kars et al. 1990; McDonnell et al. 1991; Thompson et al. 1986). Preliminary results seem to clearly reveal the potential of this technique. NAA and ICP are relatively expensive. They are often destructive and their application has usually been limited to a few pieces only (Butler 1984: 301; Davis 1985: 33; Vehik 1985a: 1). These techniques present a great potential for analyzing the extreme variability of chert geochemistry (Cowell and Bowman 1985: 36). The numerous factors involved in the complex patterns of element composition are not yet fully understood. This situation has to do with serious problems related to our understanding of the nature/formation processes of chert nodules, as well as sampling procedures and the statistical treatment of results (Cowell and Bowman 1985: 33; Church 1995). Lithic Characterization: Which Technique to Choose? When the main characterization techniques are known, it is easier to choose those most appropriate to the research design. First, it is essential to acknowledge that any analytical means can not only offer undeniable advantages, but also various drawbacks which usually limit its potential and application. In order to overcome this situation, any research project must combine various techniques which will complement each other. The decision process and justification of the characterization techniques chosen must take into consideration the analytical costs implied, the length of the project, the amount and size of objects to analyze, the option of using destructive or nondestructive methods, the collaboration with other specialists, the nature of the local geological context, etc. Visual observation seems to be the most appropriate technique for any study of lithic sourcing. Its application can be attractive for various reasons: the analysis is non-destructive and can focus on large samples of artefacts; it is inexpensive and it can easily be combined with other techniques, generally more expensive, which have to be limited to small samples. Various scholars have shown that geochemical analysis of cherts, often considered as more "scientific" by a number of prehistorians, is not always the most appropriate approach (see Church 1994: 61; Killick 1992: 117-118). Petrographic analysis can be better justified in the case of specific raw materials and/or geological contexts. It appears essential that prior to implementation an elaborate and well-thought methodological procedure be designed, where each analytical step can be evaluated rigorously in order to produce coherent lines of evidence. Comparison of geological archaeological assemblages types and Once the decision has been made to apply a specific technique, then the analysis can focus on the geological and archaeological materials. In most cases, the study will be carried on following the observation grid previously defined. This grid can include such aspects as 21 the general morphology of chert nodules, their cortex, color, fossils, etc. (relevant for the visual observation); and texture, microorganisms, etc. (for petrographic analysis). It is essential that the overall study relies on the same criteria for both geological and archaeological rocks (Séronie-Vivien and Séronie-Vivien 1987: 116-121). Other analyses (e.g., geochemical or mineralogical analysis) can provide a useful and/or necessary complement of information. based on a greater subjectivity by the scholar in his/her assessment of lithic sourcing. The situation is equally complicated when dealing with the geographical origin of raw materials. Often scholars are confident in their determination of a source area, as soon as archaeological and geological assemblages yield specific features or fingerprints (macroscopic, geochemical, ...) that match (Hoard et al. 1992). Yet it is essential to search for potential clues that will help assess the context of deposition. These clues are generally obvious not only when chert artefacts preserve some cortex (fresh, rolled, battered), but also when infiltration of iron oxide can be observed in the siliceous matrix (Lavin and Prothero 1992; Séronie-Vivien 1995; Turq 1990b). Efforts to document long-distance movement of cherts must always be seriously re-evaluated in the light of local geomorphological contexts. As such, it appears now essential to take into consideration secondary sources in order to provide a rigorous picture of lithic raw material availability in any specific region, but also to determine the geographical origin of the rocks transported to a prehistoric site (Andrefsky 1991, 1994b; Shelley 1993; Shackley 1998). The validity of the results will greatly depend on the comparison between these two categories of remains. Thus it should be possible to attribute a formation and a specific age to the lithic types identified among the archaeological assemblage. However, this step is not as simple and direct as it could appear. For instance, geochemical analysis has recently been shaded by controversial issues related to the application of very sophisticated statistical treatments (Church 1995; Cowell and Bowman 1985; Hoard et al. 1995; Shackley 1998). Fewer methodological weaknesses seem to come out of macroscopic observation; this is partially due to the fact that the underlying principles are generally fuzzy, 22 LITHIC RAW MATERIAL ECONOMY: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR As is often detailed in the specialized literature, any analysis of human behavior, in terms of mobility, settlement or chert exploitation patterns, is meaningful only when based on rigorous and reliable determination of chert sources. The previous section reviewed the abundant geo-archaeological literature on this topic. Yet, many studies, while allocating their efforts to collect detailed empirical data, have neglected to push further the archaeological reasoning and address the anthropological implications of documenting prehistoric economic strategies (Ives 1985: 211-212). By contrast, a relatively large number of publications have focused on interpreting human behaviors related to lithic raw material procurement and exploitation. The present section will discuss various interpretive approaches developed by prehistorians from their observations, rather than detail the procurement patterns characteristic of each chronological period or geographical area (see Féblot-Augustins 1997 and papers in Montet-White and Holen 1991 eds). The precise geographical location of lithic sources is generally problematic. For the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic periods, evidence of human action on the environment are rare or absent since early hominids mainly collected rocks on the ground (outcrops, river beds, ...) (Caspar 1984: 108). Therefore, Alain Turq suggested the consideration of "two geographical origins. The first one corresponds to the distance between the site and the closest currently known source; the second one [refers to the distance] between the site and the closest outcrop of the geological formation (...). For each type of chert two different sources are available; as such, we suggest two kinds of territories: one that is maximal (related to the closest currently known source) and the other one that is minimal (related to the distance between the site and the closest geological outcrop bearing this type of material)" (Turq 1990b: 108-109, my translation). For more recent periods, notably during the Neolithic, fieldwork can be oriented differently toward the identification of "extraction structures" (Masson 1982: 431). Thus, E. May (1981: 112-113) defined two types of chert sources: a geological one which corresponds to the areas of chertbearing sedimentary deposits (bedrock, conglomerates,...); and an archaeological one which must reveal evidence of prehistoric exploitation (workshops, quarries, mines). I. LITHIC RAW MATERIALS AND TERRITORY Many approaches have tried to interpret raw material procurement in reference to the natural environment, or to settlement patterns and strategies of resource exploitation. Thus, as previously mentioned, types of lithic materials are differentiated within an archaeological assemblage; a comparison of their characteristics with those of geological samples then allows the suggestion of a geological formation and/or a geographical origin for the lithic artefacts under consideration. At this stage only is it justified to speculate about the distances involved in the transport of the identified raw materials, the direction of this procurement, the size of the territory, the intensity of exploitation strategies, etc. (Caspar 1984: 108-109). The next issue to discuss would then concern the level of accessibility to and the quality of extraction of the chert nodules at the outcrops. The nature of these contexts of deposition have generally not changed since the prehistoric period under consideration. A very hard dolomite had the same specificities 10,000 and 100,000 years ago. By contrast, the access to lithic sources may have greatly varied, in relation mainly to climatic variations, either seasonal on a yearly basis or on the long term. For instance, Tankersley (1995) was able to document the exploitation of lithic sources during the summer and fall in the northeast region of the USA, since these locations were buried under a thick snow cover in the winter. Over the long term, climatic modifications 23 during the Quaternary era have had an enormous impact on the type of vegetation, the rate of sediment erosion, and soil formation in any specific geographical context. Thus, these climatic transformations have had a major role in uncovering or burying deposits potentially rich in chert nodules (Caspar 1984: 108; Turq 1989: 186188). difficult task of precisely identifying the degree of mobility, on the individual and/or group level (Demars 1982a: 27; Meltzer 1989; Turq 1992b: 307). Yet there could be another option to explain the presence of non-local rocks at a site. When these stones have a single geographic origin, they could be a witness to the region previously visited by the prehistoric group in the course of their annual cycle (Morala 1990; Turq 1990b). Regarding the movement of chert types present at an archaeological site, the distances involved may vary greatly according to the chronological period considered and the regional lithic availability. It appears that during early time periods, lithic procurement took advantage primarily of the local environment, i.e., early hominids rarely went beyond a few kilometers from the base camp to collect rocks (Féblot-Augustins 1990; Potts 1991; Stiles et al. 1974; Toth 1985). During the Middle Palaeolithic and especially the Upper Palaeolithic, distances increased considerably, some stones being transported over several hundred kilometers (FéblotAugustins 1993, 1997; Geneste 1985, 1988b, 1989; Turq 1989, 1990a). Nevertheless, it is not until the Neolithic period that long distance movement of lithic artefacts becomes a common phenomenon (Borkowski et al. 1991; Pétrequin et al. 1993; Schild 1987; Zalewski 1991, 1995). These considerations require some precision about procurement strategies of the so-called "exotic" rocks. It is usually a rather problematic issue to interpret these strategies, notably in terms of direct vs. indirect procurement. Indirect acquisition (usually through trade or exchange) is generally difficult to document rigorously. Nonetheless, it seems relatively rare in the case of Palaeolithic mobile hunter-gatherers. By contrast, archaeologists have found stronger evidence for more complex spatial organization during the Neolithic period. As such, it has been interpreted as centralization and control over extraction sites and artifact production by certain specialized groups. Regarding direct procurement, Binford (1979) argued that among mobile hunter-gatherers, lithic raw material procurement was embedded in subsistence activities: for instance, hunters would collect rocks to manufacture tools in the course of their hunting expeditions. Yet, some case studies from Australian aborigines have led R. Gould (1978) to suggest that specialized groups composed of a few individuals could travel some distance precisely to obtain particular lithic raw materials from primary source areas. This controversial issue reveals, in fact, the Thus far, the focus of attention has been on nonlocal or "exotic" raw materials. Yet, these rocks rarely represent more than 5-10% of any lithic assemblage. All along human evolution, local environments have been the main source for plants, animals and minerals. Geneste (1988c, 1989, 1990) suggested a model where five kilometers would define the maximum extension of a local territory. This model has been justified in terms of minimization of energetic costs during transport (Demars 1990a; Geneste 1988a; Montet-White 1988): "One of the stable [features] in the strategies of raw material exploitation corresponds to the " law of the least effort". Humans have found most of the materials they used... in the environment surrounding the site" (Morala et Turq 1990: 407). Finally, it also appears important to take into consideration the kind of site considered and the duration of occupation. If we are dealing with seasonal and specialized sites or camps occupied for longer periods of time, the inventory of raw material types might vary (Geneste 1983, 1985; Turq 1989, 1990a). II. LITHIC RAW MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY Another set of questions considers technological aspects in relation to raw material types. Besides identifying the sources of lithic raw materials present at a site, it can be interesting to document whether any differential treatment of raw materials could be related to the distance of the rocks transported. Are there any variations in the patterns of raw material introduction to the sites? It is possible to identify whether a lithic type was carried around as a complete nodule or one just tested as prepared cores, as unretouched blanks or as retouched tools (Caspar 1984: 109; Perlès 1990: 3-4). Such an original approach was elaborated in the mid-80s, in particular by J.-M. Geneste (1983, 1985; see Dibble 1995; Jelinek 1991; Schlanger 1994). It built upon the theoretical advances related to the definition of the "chaîne 24 opératoire" (Lemonnier 1983; see Karlin et al. 1991; Pélegrin et al. 1988) and the empirical advances in experimental flintknapping (Boëda 1982; Collective 1984; Flenniken 1984; Pélegrin 1991a, 1991b). This new methodology rested upon simple principles: any chipped artifact present at an archaeological site preserves certain features characteristic of a specific core reduction sequence. Moreover this artifact reveals a particular moment of this sequence. Geneste, for instance, defined and divided the chaîne opératoire of Levallois method into various distinct phases and sub-phases (Geneste 1983, 1985). Modification of Geneste's work have appeared recently in the study of other Mousterian sites (see Turq 1990b), but this approach has also been applied to other chronological periods, such as the Upper Palaeolithic (Chadelle 1990: 385-386) and the Neolithic (Deramaix 1990: 63; Perlès 1990: 510). role not as constraining as in earlier periods (Turq 1992b). Decrease in mobility (sedentism) in the early Holocene in various parts of the world sees the threshold of new economic strategies as applied to chert procurement and utilization. On the one hand, the procurement of raw materials is limited to a few specialized extraction sites (mines and quarries) and the exchange of retouched products between neighboring communities becomes more intensive, leading to the transport of raw materials over long distances (Schild 1987; Zalewski 1991, 1995). On the other hand, the organization of lithic production becomes more "expedient", as illustrated by the presence of amorphous cores and products little standardized (Parry and Kelly 1987). In the Anglo-Saxon literature, the theoretical discourse about lithic assemblages usually refers to disconnected dimensions of the technical process, but rarely to a holistic view of the phenomena involved (Nelson 1991; Simek 1994; Stark 1998; Torrence 1994). The variability of lithic industries can thus be interpreted in relation to settlement patterns, site types and duration of occupation, the degree of curation, etc. As such, the raw material availability and specific chert features hold a dominant position in the interpretation of chipped stone artefacts. These dimensions are generally considered as limiting factors in the understanding of lithic production, tool use and maintenance (Holliday and Welty 1981). Aspects, such as the size and shape of chert nodules, their abundance, and their knapping quality, are considered essential to comprehend the nature of tool assemblages (Amick and Mauldin 1997; Andrefsky 1994a; Bamforth 1986; Binford 1979; Biro 1993; Demars 1992; Holliday and Welty 1981; Toth 1991), despite the key role also played by individual knowhow, cultural norms, functional aspects, etc. Let us now turn to some archaeological case studies. It appears that the Middle Palaeolithic Period has been subject to the most numerous and detailed analyses. Differing strategies have been clearly documented over the past two decades regarding the lithic transport and exploitation patterns. Thus, following Alain Turq's suggestion (1990b: 113), it appears that certain categories of artefacts could be interpreted as "mobile" whereas others could be considered more "sedentary". Levallois products and sidescrapers notably would be mobile objects, made in raw materials which can be collected in distant locations; by contrast, notches and denticulates are usually taking advantage of local rocks (Geneste 1988a, 1989, 1990). With the Upper Palaeolithic period, a greater variability and flexibility seem to characterize the exploitation of various sources, when distances played a 25 26 - CHAPTER 2 - GEOLOGICAL STUDIES ON CHERT: A BIBLIOGRAPHY 27 28 ABDEL-WAHAB, Antar, Alaa M.K. SALEM and Earle F. 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Mitteilungen der Prähistorischen Komission der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, VIII und IX, I. Teil, pp 98108. 21 6 - CHAPTER 4 - ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES ON LITHIC RAW MATERIALS: INDEXES 21 7 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX Note: This geographical index is organized by alphabetical order (continents and countries). AFRICA CENTRAL AMERICA CENTRAL AFRICA: 468 BELIZE: 346, 578, 581, 768, 866-868, 12191220, 1274, 1381-1382, 1585-1586, 1656-1657, 1839-1840 EASTERN AFRICA: 31, 140-143, 427-430, 459, 695, 824, 837-839, 917, 989, 1045-1046, 1075, 1141, 1198-1200, 1493-1496, 1568, 1619-1621, 1643-1644, 1679, 1745-1746, 1850-1856, 1999 GUATEMALA: 1670 MEXICO: 58, 1415-1416, 1901, 2019 EGYPT: 157, 438-443, 675, 1424, 1915-1924 LIBYA: 554-555 EUROPE MAURITANIA: 1419-1420 AUSTRIA: 1291-1292, 1294, 1297, 1994, 2038 MOROCCO: 267, 1964-1972 BELGIUM: 51-52, 380-381, 540-541, 903904, 927, 1028, 1116, 1208-1209, 1252-1254, 1397-1400, 1558-1560, 1747, 1898-1899 SOUTHERN AFRICA: 32, 238, 817, 911, 1041-1043, 1194, 1200, 1271, 1412, 1599, 1697, 1933, 2020-2021 BULGARIA: 577, 976, 1044, 1089, 1429, 1504 SUDAN: 1162 CENTRAL EUROPE: 29, 30, 616-621, 10141015, 1017-1021, 1084, 1086-1088, 1090, 1245, 1291, 1294-1295, 1560, 1636, 1669, 1717, 1790, 1793 WESTERN AFRICA: 404, 672, 1835 ASIA CRIMEA: 1161 CHINA: 287-288, 1125, 1256 CROATIA: 959, 1682 INDIA: 14051406, 1408, 1457 CYPRUS: 74 ISRAEL: 144, 508-512, 657-658, 758-760, 902, 1349, 1380, 1573-1574, 2003, 2026 CZECH REPUBLIC: 1151, 1368 JAPAN: 869, 1325-1326, 1944-1946, 2025 DENMARK: 153-155, 1365, 1734 JORDAN: 105, 676, 706-707, 849-850, 985, 1145, 1205, 1351, 1395, 1519-1522, 16331635, 1637 FINLAND: 992, 1184 FRANCE: 6-7, 9-12, 14-15, 70-71, 73, 77-82, 84-86, 104, 130, 135-137, 148, 151, 163, 168, 177, 179-184, 191, 218-220, 224-225, 227, 229, 231, 240, 256-260, 262-264, 272-279, 289-291, 295-298, 358, 382, 386-391, 399, 409, 444, 449-450, 454, 460-462, 471-472, 483-487, 496, 501, 507, 513-516, 518-539, 543-544, 547-549, 566, 568, 579, 585, 611-614, 616-621, 645-646, 650-653, 685-686, 700, 710-724, 726, 733, 735741, 790-792, 805, 808, 898, 914-916, 933-936, 938, 941-943, 961, 986, 1027, 1047-1050, OMAN: 400-402, 1956-1957 PAKISTAN: 170-171 SYRIA: 23, 232, 551, 195 TURKEY: 1039 UZBEKISTAN: 1266-1268 21 8 FRANCE (Cont’d): 1058-1062, 1076-1080, 1094-1095, 1098-1100, 1105, 1107-1108, 1138-1139, 1150, 1164, 1170-1182, 11851189, 1222-122, 1233, 1257-1258, 1275-1280, 1282-1289, 1303-1311, 1327, 1358, 13661367, 1394, 1396, 1421-1422, 1432, 14581460, 1462-1463, 1465, 1470, 1474, 14771478, 1488-1489, 1497-1499, 1549, 15621564, 1581, 1583-1584, 1594, 1630-1631, 1645-1648, 16550-1652, 1685-1692, 1704, 1761-1762, 1773, 1777-1782, 1802, 18181819, 1827-1830, 1833, 1836, 1846-1849, 1860, 1864-1881, 1886-1890, 1892-1895, 1932, 1958, 1978-1980, 2000-2002, 2024 RUSSIA: 687, 749, 810, 1009, 1492, 1660, 1711-1712, 2034 SCANDINAVIA: 300, 883, 1064, 1383-1384, 1703, 1795 S LOV A KI A: 138, 974, 1016, 1023, 12691270, 1385-1393, 1502-1503, 1505-1507, 1640, 1699, 1701-1702, 1730, 1736-1739, 1784-1793, 1896-1897 SPAIN: 25, 59, 165-167, 255, 341-344, 364367, 425, 597-598, 629, 671, 681-683, 696-697, 752, 912, 960, 1152, 1322-1324, 1343, 15261534, 1565, 1588, 1602-1604, 1713, 1756-1758, 1760, 1763, 1820-1822, 1824-1826, 1891, 1902 GERMANY: 26, 87, 94-95, 285, 326-327, 456-457, 552, 637-647, 666, 669, 799, 801802, 804, 811-815, 1190-1191, 1404, 1418, 1558-1560, 1617-1618, 1632, 1882, 19541955, 1973-1976 SWEDEN: 1109, 1587, 1960-1961 SWITZERLAND: 4-5, 8, 13, 383-385, 2, 910, 1471-1472 GREECE: 1, 767, 926, 1272, 1441-1449, 1582, 1694 UKRAINE: 1006 HUNGARY: 100-103, 123, 196-213, 550, 560-564, 677, 684, 822, 1341, 1423, 16801681, 1793, 1796-1801, 1903-1904, 1925, 1936 UNITED KINGDOM: 27, 68-69, 89, 129, 281-284, 292, 302-303, 323, 347, 369-370, 420, 431-433, 465, 473-475, 477, 489-490, 500, 506, 586-587, 591, 623-626, 630, 633, 698, 709, 786-787, 807, 851-853, 878, 886-888, 899, 925, 996, 1074, 1144, 1165-1167, 1232, 1321, 13371338, 1407, 1464, 1475-1476, 1512-1513, 1518, 1525, 1535, 1589-1590, 1607-1612, 1728, 1837, 1843, 1962-1963, 1982-1985, 1990-1993, 1998, 2029-2030 IRELAND: 293-294, 794, 1453, 2008-2013 ITALY: 131-133, 145, 174-176, 254, 301, 407, 419, 467, 482, 553, 556, 570, 648, 688, 708, 795-796, 1031-1038, 1040, 1056, 1063, 1096, 1115, 1120-1121, 1147, 1259, 12611262, 1334-1336, 1353, 1437-1440, 1628, 1684, 1715-1716, 1926 YUGOSLAVIA: 149, 973, 1731, 1738, 1858, 1937, 1939 LUXEMBOURG: 516, 1720-1723, 2035 NORTH AMERICA NETHERLANDS (The): 69, 169, 251-23, 334, 435, 602, 623, 797-798, 979, 1160, 12081209, 1558-1560, 1674-1675 CANADA: 3, 115, 266, 357, 410-413, 590, 92595, 844-845, 874, 894, 897, 929, 931, 962-967, 1026, 1071-1072, 1102, 1122-1123, 1204, 1342, 1410-1411, 1413-1414, 1426, 1481-1484, 1735, 1749-1751, 1934-1935 NORWAY: 894-897 POLAND: 97-99, 112-114, 159, 241-249, 318-321, 324, 408, 567, 576, 734, 854-860, 932, 969-972, 997-998, 1010-1015, 10181025, 1081-1085, 1149, 1239-1244, 1312, 1427-1428, 1508, 1592-1593, 1596-1598, 1622-1626, 1710, 1774-1776, 1885, 20312033 USA: 2, 16-22, 33-50, 53-56, 60-67, 72, 75-76, 88, 90-93, 96, 106-111, 116-122, 124-128, 134, 146-147, 150, 152, 156, 160-162, 164, 178, 189, 194-195, 214-217, 221-223, 226, 228, 233-237, 239, 261, 265, 268-271, 280, 299, 305-308, 311-317, 322, 325, 335-339, 348-356, 359-363, 371-379, 392-396, 4114-418, 421-424, 436, 445-448, 451-453, 458, 63-464, 466, 469-470, 478-481, 488, 491-495, 497-499, 503-504, 517, 542, 557-558, 569, 571-575, 580, 582-584, 595596, 605-609, 622, 627-628, 631-632, 634-636, 649, 654-656, 659-663, 667-668, 673-674, 678680, 689, 699, 701-705, 725, 727-728, 731-732, PORTUGAL: 172-173, 1163, 1831-1832, 1930, 2036-2037 ROMANIA: 368, 455, 1332-1333 21 9 USA (Cont/d): 747-748, 750-751, 753-757, 761, 769-785, 788-789, 793, 806, 809, 816, 818-819, 825-827, 829-835, 841, 847-848, 861-863, 865, 870, 875-877, 879-882, 884885, 889-893, 900-901, 906, 908, 913, 918924, 928, 930, 937, 939-940, 945-956, 968, 975, 977, 980-983, 987-988, 990-991, 993995, 999-1005, 1008, 1027, 1029-1030, 1051, 1053-1055, 1057, 1065, 1067-1070, 1097, 1101, 1103-1104, 1106, 1110-1114, 11171119, 1124, 1126-1137, 1140, 1142-1143, 1146, 1153-1157, 1168-1169, 1183, 11921193, 1195-1197, 1206-1207, 1210-1217, 1221, 1227-1231, 1235-1238, 1246-1251, 1255, 1264-1265, 1273, 1298-1299, 13011302, 1313-1320, 1329-1331, 1339-1340, 1343, 1347-1348, 1350, 1352, 1354-1356, 1359-1364, 1369, 1372-1378, 1403, 1409, 1425, 1435-1436, 1450-1452, 1454-1456, 1466-1467, 1469, 1473, 1479, 1485-1487, 1490-1491, 1500-1501, 1509-1511, 15141517, 1523, 1537, 1539-1548, 1550-1557, 1566-1567, 1570-1572, 1575-1580, 1591, 1600-1601, 1605-1606, 1613, 1616, 16381639, 1641-1642, 1653, 1655, 1658-1659, 1661-1662, 1671-1672, 1693, 1695-1696, 1698, 1705-1707, 1709, 1714, 1718-1719, 1724-1727, 1729, 1733, 1741-1744, 1748, 1752-1753, 1764-1772, 1803-1817, 1838, 1841-1842, 1844, 1857, 1859, 1861-1863, 1883-1884, 1900, 1905-1914, 1927-1929, 1931, 1942-1943, 1950-1953, 1977, 19861989, 1995-1997, 2004-2007, 2015-2018, 2022, 2028 OCEANIA AUSTRALIA: 188, 190, 192-193, 340, 434, 565, 692, 742-746, 762-766, 823, 842-843, 871873, 909, 1159, 1201-1203, 1218, 1300, 1328, 1668, 1783, 1981 MICRONESIA: 28, 328-330, 397-398, 9071460, 1524, 1561, 1667, 1754-1755, 1947-1949, 2014 NEW ZEALAND: 502, 670, 957 SOUTH AMERICA ARGENTINA: 437, 664-665, 1345, 1538, 1823 CHILE: 1346 PERU: 403, 1066, 1678 22 0 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX 1357-1358, 1385-1391, 1393-1394, 1396, 1404, 1420, 1424, 1429, 1432-1433, 1437, 1455, 1463, 1470, 1497-1499, 1502-1503, 1505-1506, 1558-1560, 1563-1565, 1582, 1602-1604, 16171618, 1630-1631, 1637, 1647-1648, 1650, 1680, 1685-1687, 1689-1692, 1694, 1699-1701, 17111713, 1717, 1730, 1756-1758, 1760-1763, 1773, 1777-1778, 1780, 1784, 1786-1789, 1791-1793, 1818-1819, 1831-1832, 1846-1849, 1873-1874, 1876, 1880-1881, 1887-1888, 1890, 1892-1893, 1896-1897, 1918-1919, 1925, 1973-1976, 20352038 OLD WORLD LOWER PALAEOLITHIC: 68, 89, 238, 274, 286-288, 364-367, 404, 427-430, 454, 467, 551, 598, 615, 617-618, 620, 681, 683, 686, 693, 696-697, 719, 736, 758, 760, 824, 837-839, 917, 958, 989, 1039, 1041-1043, 1045-1046, 1063,1075-1076, 1095, 1107, 1138-1139, 1144-1145, 1152, 1256, 12861289, 1322-1324, 1343, 1380, 1405-1406, 1457, 1488, 1493-1496, 1568, 1584, 1588, 1619-1621, 1634, 1643-1644, 1715-1716, 1745-1746, 1850-1856, 1864-1865, 1872, 1878, 1932, 1962-1963, 1982-1985, 20002001 LATER STONE AGE: 31, 140, 141-143, 468, 672, 695, 817, 911, 1141, 1271, 1412, 1679, 1739, 1835 MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC: 23, 32, 130, 149, 157, 168, 174-176, 230-232, 289, 326, 347, 368, 443, 450, 456-457, 509, 512-514, 532, 538, 545-550, 616-621, 682, 684, 692, 710, 712-720, 722, 724, 736-739, 759, 767, 795-796, 849-850, 902, 933-934, 936, 938, 959, 985-986, 1028, 1031-1038, 1115-1116, 1120-1121, 1161, 1222-1226, 1275-1285, 1289, 1327, 1335-1336, 1392, 1397-1402, 1408, 1419, 1421, 1424, 1438-1439, 1549, 1569, 1581, 1660, 1681, 1682, 1684, 1688, 1704, 1713, 1790, 1827-1829, 1833, 1836, 1846-1848, 1860, 1867-1872, 1874-1878, 1898-1899, 1902-1904, 1915-1917, 19201924, 1926, 1959, 1964-1972, 2002 EPIPALAEOLITHIC/MESOLITHIC: 5, 7, 10-12, 94-95, 123, 144, 172-173, 191, 227, 289290, 296, 301, 369-370, 409, 425, 433, 483, 486, 506, 508-511, 534, 539, 629, 633, 640, 642-643, 645-648, 734, 894-897, 997-998, 1010, 1064, 1108, 1162, 1165-1167, 1184, 1325-1326, 1334, 1337-1338, 1368, 1395, 1446, 1453, 1471-1472, 1476, 1525, 1573, 1583, 1602, 1633, 1635, 1646-1648, 1651, 1710, 1720-1723, 1758, 1774-1775, 1777, 1781-1782, 1820-1821, 1824-1825, 1830, 1886, 1930, 1939, 2003, 2009-2013, 2025, 2029-2030, 2034 NEOLITHIC: 6, 8-9, 11-13, 27, 51-52, 69-71, 74, 97-103, 105, 112-114, 129, 131-133, 145, 148, 153-155, 169, 179-184, 191, 199-201, 204213, 224-225, 241-29, 251-253, 256-260, 262, 281-284, 289, 295, 297, 309-310, 318-321, 323, 331-334, 339, 380, 382, 405-406, 420, 431-432, 35, 438-442, 455, 465, 473, 475, 477, 483-485, 487, 489-490, 500, 515-516, 540-541, 543-544, 552-556, 567, 576, 585-589, 591, 602, 623-626, 630, 652-653, 657-658, 669, 677, 688, 698, 700, 707-709, 726, 735, 787, 797-803, 807, 810, 854-860, 878, 883, 886-888, 899, 903-905, 915916, 927, 932, 941-943, 960, 973, 976, 979, 1009, 1016, 1044, 1047-1048, 1058, 1081, 1083-1093, 1096, 1105, 1125, 1149, 1160, 1164, 1177-1181, 1205, 1208-1209, 1232, 1239-1245, 1258, 1266-1270, 1321, 1351, 1353, 1365, 1367, 1370-1371, 1383-1384, 1434, 1440-1449, 1458-1460, 1462, 1464-1465, 1474, 1476-1478, 1504, 1507-1508, 1512-1513, 1518, 1519-1520, 1562, 1573-1574, 1587, 1589-1590, 1596-1598, 1614, 1632, 1636, 1663-1665, 1669, MIDDLE STONE AGE: 140, 1198-1200, 1599, 1697, 1933, 1999, 2020-2021 UPPER PALAEOLITHIC: 1, 26, 29-30, 7882, 84-87, 104, 135-138, 151, 163, 166-167, 218-220, 229, 240, 254-255, 263, 267, 271273, 275-279, 289, 291, 324, 327, 341-344, 358, 383-390, 399, 409, 426, 444, 449, 460462, 471-472, 496, 501, 507, 518-529, 531, 533-537, 560-564, 566, 568, 577, 579, 597, 611-614, 617-619, 629, 637-645, 647, 650651, 666, 671, 685, 711, 715, 723, 733, 740741, 749, 752, 790-791, 804, 811-815, 898, 912, 914, 961, 974, 985, 1011, 1013-1014, 1017-1025, 1027, 1040, 1049-1050, 1056, 1059-1062, 1077-1080, 1099-1100, 1158, 1163, 1171-1176, 1185-1189, 1233, 12521254, 1257, 1259, 1261-1262, 1291-1292, 1294-1295, 1297, 1303-1311, 1332-1333, 22 1 NEOLITHIC (Cont’d): 1674-1675, 1737, 1739, 1747, 1779, 1785, 1796, 1802, 1843, 1858, 1882, 1889, 1891, 1938, 1958, 1960-1961, 1998, 2003, 2034 1708, 179819362031- PROTOHISTORY: 59, 170-171, 292, 408, 482, 960, 971, 1082, 1184, 1423, 1526-1534, 1665, 1785, 1956-1957 ETHNOHISTORIC/ETHNOGRAPHIC: 185-188, 397-398, 762-766, 907, 909, 957, 1201-1203, 1460, 1480, 1524, 1754-1755, 1783, 1822-1823, 1981, 2014 NEW WORLD PALEOINDIAN: 36-44, 117-120, 152, 178, 234-236, 239, 316-317, 447, 488, 493, 504, 517, 558, 592-595, 660, 673-674, 699, 753756, 777-778, 818, 841-843, 870, 880, 882, 924, 962-967, 983, 1002, 1004-1005, 1008, 1055, 1103, 1106, 1118, 112-1143, 11531154, 1168, 1197, 1207, 1227-1229, 1273, 1318, 1339-1340, 1346, 1352, 1374, 14811483, 1485, 1487, 1576, 1578, 1642, 16581659, 1661, 1672, 1705-1707, 1724-1725, 1749-1752, 1803, 1805-1817, 1844, 1935, 2016, 2018 ARCHAIC: 33-35, 46, 315, 403, 458, 491492, 494-495, 497-499, 583-584, 628, 660, 705, 834-835, 894, 897, 937, 955, 1066, 10711072, 1140, 1319, 1329-1331, 1551, 1600, 1678, 1752, 1765, 1769, 1929, 1931, 1942 LATE PRE-CONTACT: 16, 49, 58, 60-63, 65-66, 228, 270, 305-307, 346, 351-354, 363, 411-413, 424, 445-446, 578, 581-582, 632, 635, 649, 689, 768, 775, 779, 793, 809, 816, 844-845, 866, 868, 879, 881, 945, 952-954, 977, 980-982, 988, 1003, 1067, 1101, 1126, 1130-1133, 1169, 1211-1212, 1220, 1221, 1230-1231, 1246, 1255, 1274, 1298, 13131317, 1342, 1359-1362, 1381-1382, 1404, 1416, 1456, 1466-1467, 1479, 1509, 1511, 1523, 1585-1586, 1656-1657, 1670, 1727, 1742-1744, 1771, 1839-1840, 1901, 1905, 1908, 1910-1912, 1928, 1942, 1950-1952, 1987, 2004-2005, 2019, 2028 22 2